Обсуждение:Сновидения

Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān

Образы (видения), увиденные в состоянии сна, передающие смысл или сообщение (содержание) некоторой значимости. В Коране используется четыре различных выражения для обозначения сновидений. Слово «Ру’йа» (ар. رُؤْيَة (фигурирует шесть раз (Коран, 12:5, 43, 100; 17:60; 37:105; 48:27); слово «Манаам»)ар. مَنَام) встречается четыре раза, дважды в значении «сна» (Коран, 30:23; 39:42) и дважды в значении «сновидения» (Коран, 8:43; 37:102); «Бушраа» (ар. بُشْرَي), что означает «благие вести» (см. «хорошие новости»), в одном случае растолковано в значении «сновидения». (Коран, 10:64). Все эти три слова обозначают хорошие сновидения. Для обозначения плохих снов в Коране используется слово «Хульм» (ар. (حُلْم . Это слово встречается дважды, и оба раза в словосочетании «Адгасу Ахлям» (ар. أَضْغَاثُ أَحْلَام), что означает «бессвязные, запутанные сны» (Коран,12:44; 21:5). Из этих десяти упоминаний шесть имеют отношение к библейским личностям: четыре связаны с Иосифом (Йусуфом) (Коран, 12:5, 43, 44, 100) и два с Авраамом (Ибрагимом) (Коран, 37:102, 105); остальные ссылки относятся к вопросам, связанным с основами Ислама. Большинство толкователей Корана в своих комментариях к аятам, в которых упоминаются сновидения, добавляют «хадисы» (ар. (الحديث: высказывания (изречения) из разряда тех, что можно найти в канонических сборниках хадисов (см. «Хадис и Коран»). Эти высказывания имеют отношение к (вопросу) авторитетности (значимости) сновидений и их использованию в качестве средства легитимации (Описание (категоризация) сущности сновидений в сборниках хадисов, см. «Манам», введение, 36). Цитируя данные высказывания, труды по экзегетике (Тафсир) (ар. تَفْسِير) связывают коранические сны с общей позицией Ислама по отношению к сновидениям, как выражено в Хадисе. Хадисы подтверждают эту связь (ассоциацию), ссылаясь на коранические сны и цитируя соответствующие аяты в разделах о сновидениях (например, «Сахих аль-Бухари», Китаб Та’бир, бааб ру’йаа-с-Салихиин) (араб. باب رؤيا الصالحين صحيح البخاري كتاب التعبير) То же самое использование «коранических снов» в поддержку личных интересов в этом вопросе происходит и с другими источниками, отдельные главы которых посвящены сновидениям. (к примеру, Абу-ль-Касим аль-Кушайри, «Рисаля»; сравни исследование «Бушра» ниже) Некоторые толкователи предполагают, что коранические сновидения классифицируются в зависимости от того, сбываются они или нет, а также согласно их четкости (ясности). К примеру, Аль-Рази (умер в 606/1210; Тафсир xxvi, 157), упоминает три разновидности: Сновидения, содержание или события которых сбываются (становятся реальностью), как, например, сновидение Мухаммада (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует) в Худейбие, предсказавшее покорение Мекки (см. Коран 48:27); Сновидения, содержание которых исполняется с точностью до наоборот. Например, сновидение Авраама (Ибрагима), содержание которого свидетельствовало о принесении в жертву сына, но в реальности был принесен в жертву баран. (q 37:102-5; см. Исаак; Исмаиль); Сны, для понимания которых требуется толкование, примером которых служат четыре сновидения из суры «Йусуф» (Коран, 12). Оставшаяся часть данной статьи относится к анализу коранических аятов, которые указывают на сновидения (с переводом аятов), вместе с кратким изложением соответствующих разделов тафсира, а также анализ их соответствия хадисам. Сон Авраама (Ибрагима) Коран, 37:102-5 гласит: «Когда он достиг того возраста, чтобы усердствовать вместе с ним, он сказал: „Сын мой! Я вижу во сне, что зарезаю тебя. Посмотри, что ты думаешь?“. Он сказал: „Отец мой! Сделай то, что тебе велено. Если Аллах пожелает, ты найдешь меня одним из терпеливых“. Когда они оба покорились, и он уложил его на бок, Мы воззвали к нему: „О Ибрахим (Авраам)! Ты оправдал сновидение“. Воистину, так Мы воздаем творящим добро…» Комментарии толкователей относительно этих аятов добавляют подробностей, дополняя рассказ, и поднимают несколько вопросов о содержании и процессе сновидения Авраама (Ибрагима). Как результат этих подробностей и вопросов был сформулирован статус сновидений в исламской мысли, что не обязательно относится только к Корану. Несколько комментаторов упоминают, что когда Авраам (Ибрагим) узнал о рождении своего ребёнка в будущем, он поклялся (см. клятва), что принесет в жертву ребёнка Богу (Аллаху). А в этом сне ему напомнили об этой клятве. (Мукатиль, Тафсир iii, 615; Рази, Тафсир, xxvi, 153; Куртуби, Джами xv, 102;Суютий, Дурр v, 307). Толкование (см. Экзегетика Корана: классическая и средневековая) далее сообщает, что Авраам видел этот сон три ночи подряд. Когда наступило утро первой ночи, Авраам думал о сновидении и сомневался в том, было ли оно от Бога (Аллаха) или же от сатаны (шайтана) (см. сатана). На следующую ночь он увидел тот же самый сон, и тогда он понял, что это было сообщение (послание) от Бога (Аллаха). К третьей ночи, Авраам был готов к тому, чтобы принести в жертву своего сына (Рази, Тафсир, xxvi, 153; Багави, Маалим, iv, 569; Куртуби, Джами xv, 101-2; Суюти, Дурр, v, 308). Сомнения Авраама указывают на противоречие хадису, который утверждает, что сновидения пророков (ру’ йа) равносильны откровению (вахьи, Суюти, Дурр, v, 305; сравни сновидение Йусуфа ниже). Если сны имеют значимость (вес) откровения, то Авраам не должен был сомневаться. Более того, Коран повествует, что Авраам совещался со своим сыном по поводу жертвоприношения. В глазах некоторых толкователей, это представляет противоречие: если сновидения имеют силу, как указывается в хадисе, то почему это сновидение не вызвало немедленного доверия и убежденности у Авраама? С другой стороны, если сон не представляет бесспорное доказательство его достоверности, что быть может обьясняет сомнения, как же это случилось, что Авраам, тем не менее, решил принести в жертву своего сына? Ответ Аль-Рази (умер 606\1210) (Тафсир, xxvi, 153) на оба вопроса в том, что Авраам проявил сомнение в отношении сновидения (ру\я), но был успокоен ясным откровением (аль-вахьй ас-сарих). Терминология, использованная аль-Рази, стоит внимания: несмотря на то, что сам аят использует слово «Манаам», толкователь ссылается на слово «Ру\йа», не указывая, является ли оно синонимом слову «Манаам», или нет. А когда он имеет дело с «ру\йа», он также ссылается на «Вахьй». Разница между этими двумя может быть связана с Хадисом, который дает определение сновидениям, как части пророчества (см. Абу Хаджир Заглюль, Маусуа, v, 156; Кинберг, Вещие сны, , 283-4, and n. 12; Куртуби, Сновидения Йусуфа). Аль-Рази, обьясняя то, как Авраам принял решение, ставит «ру\йа» и «вахьи» в порядке иерархии, в которой последнее оправдывает (легализует, санкционирует) второе. Тафсир подчеркивает, что Авраам был настолько решительно настроен относительно того, что он собирался делать, что попытки сатаны изменить его намерение потерпели крах. (Багави, Маалим, iv, 570; Суюти, Дурр, v, 306-7). Авраам как следует подготовился, и когда он уже собирался принести в жертву своего сына, услышал голос, который выразил восхищение его верой в сон (ру\йа, Коран 37:105). Это, согласно аль-Рази, указывает на осведомленность Авраама о том факте, что сообщение, донесенное в его сновидении было обязательным. Но все же это не означает, что приказ действительно был исполнен (Рази, Тафсир xxvi, 156). Следуя этому доказательству, аль-Рази относит это сновидение к виду, сообщение которых исполняется с точностью до наоборот. (тот же, 157). Сны Иосифа (Йусуфа) В суре Йусуф (Коран, 12) есть четыре сна символического значения, которые требуют трактовки. По существу, они подходят под третью категорию снов, упомянутых выше. В начале суры (Коран 12:3), Йусуф говорит своему отцу, что он видел во сне одиннадцать звезд, солнце и луну, склоняющимися перед ним. Далее в суре мы читаем о сновидениях двух мужчин, которые встретили Йусуфа в тюрьме. Один из них увидел себя, выжимающим вино из винограда, а второй увидел, что он несет на голове хлеб, который едят птицы. Йусуф растолковал значение этих снов так, что первый человек будет поить своего господина вином, а второй будет распят (Коран, 35-41). 43й аят 12й суры повествует о сновидении Фараона, когда он увидел семь тучных коров, которые поедали семь тощих, и семь зеленых колосьев и семь сухих. Приближенные Фараона не смогли растолковать сон и отнесли его к «Адгас Ахлям», то есть несвязным, запутанным сновидениям (Коран 12:44). Йусуф растолковал эти знаки, как семь урожайных лет, за которыми последуют семь засушливых (Коран 12: 47-9). Ближе к концу суры сновидение Йусуфа, упомянутое в начале суры, исполняется в момент прибытия его семьи в Египет: «Он поднял своих родителей на трон, и они вместе с братьями пали ниц перед ним. Он сказал: „Отец мой! Это — толкование моего давнего сна. Господь мой сделал его явью“ (Коран, 12:100). Так же, как и в случае со сном Авраама, здесь тоже толкование вносит вклад в понимание положения сновидений в Исламе. Комментируя аят, в котором Йакуб советует Йусуфу не сообщать о сновидении своим братьям (Коран 12:5), многие толкователи концентрируют внимание на пророческой сущности его сна и развивают мысль о наличии связи между пророчеством и сновидениями. Аль-Ваиди (умер в 468⁄1076; Васыт ii, 600), к примеру, обьясняет, что Йусуф был Пророком и утверждает, что пророческие сны (Ру\йа) равносильны откровению (вахьй, сравни „сновидение Авраама“ выше). Йакуб знал, что его сыновья, братья Йусуфа, поймут значение этого сновидения и будут предпринимать попытки покончить (убить) с Йусуфом. Таким образом, он советует ему, не сообщать им о его сне. К этому же аяту, Аль-Куртуби (умер в 671\1272) приводит некоторые хадисы, которые в действительности подчеркивают достоверность сновидений, как, например, (хадис), который определяет сновидения, как часть пророчества (26я, 40я, 44я, 46я, 49я, 50я часть пророчества, Джами, ix, 122-4; сравни „сновидение Авраама“ выше, см. откровение и озарение, пророки и пророчество). Далее он анализирует особенности сновидений, как источника (носителя) истины (см. истина), или как сбывающиеся предсказания, а также сравнивает различные виды сновидений и их разное время (Куртуби, Джами, 125-9). В завершение своих пояснений он представляет Йусуфа пророком и лучшим толкователем сновидений на земле (тот же, 129, дополн. 6). В своих комментариях к аятам, повествующим о толковании снов Йусуфом двум мужчинам в тюрьме (Коран 12:35-42), Аль-Куртуби поднимает вопрос, касающийся воплощения в жизнь сновидений в зависимости от их толкования: когда человек, увидавший сон, говорит правду, его сон исполнится согласно толкованию (этого сна). Все происходит абсолютно по-другому, если человек, увидавший сон, лжет. В этом случае, исполнится только толкование пророка. В соответствии с этим можно понять слова Йусуфа: „Дело, о котором вы спрашивали, уже предрешено“ (Коран 12:41). Аль-Куртуби обьясняет, что когда Йусуф растолковал сон мужчины, обреченного на смерть, тот отрекся от того, что он видел этот сон. На это Йусуф ответил, „Видел ты его или нет, дело, о котором вы спрашивали, уже предрешено“ (Куртуби, Джами ix, 193). Аль-Куртуби вновь поднимает вопрос о воплощении снов в реальность, когда говорит о количестве лет, которые прошли с момента, когда Йусуф увидел свой сон, будучи ещё мальчиком, и до того времени, когда он, будучи героем, встретил свою семью в Египте (Коран 12:100). Сорок лет, как утверждает аль-Куртуби, — самый больший промежуток времени, который мог пройти с момента видения сна до его исполнения (тот же, 264, и Коран 12:100). Уточнения, добавленные аль-Куртуби, показывают склонность толкований рассматривать коранические сны, как часть литературы, имеющей дело с толкованием снов (та’ бир). Анализ литературы о „та’ бире“ тоже это показывает, хотя там также явно проявляется и факт влияния иностранных культур, таких как вавилонская (Bland, Muhammedan science, 119; Fahd, The dream, 351), греческая (Bland, Muhammedan science, 123-4; Fahd, The dream, 248; Somogyi, Interpretation, 2), и иудейская (Kister, Interpretation, 99-101). Несмотря на это, литература о толковании снов — исламская по своей сущности: основным требованием, предъявляемым по отношению к каждому мусульманину, занимающемуся толкованием снов, — всестороннее (основательное) знание традиций толкования Корана (тафсир), который является источником происхождения многих способов трактовки (Bland, Muhammedan science, 132). В работах по „та\биру“ также часто ссылаются и на коранические аяты, которые нередко используются в качестве способов трактовки (тот же 122, Kister, Interpretation, 90, 91; Somogyi, Interpretation, 15-8). Йусуф в книгах по „Та\биру“ фигурирует в качестве поясняющего примера для методов трактовки(Bland, Muhammedan science, 125). Считается, что определенные части Корана защищают от плохих сновидений (тот же, 129-30), а также аяты, услышанные или увиденные в сновидениях, трактуются в соответствии с характером суры, в которой они находятся (тот же, 143). Большее количество упоминаний о сновидениях в Коране относятся к вопросам, взятым из биографии Пророка Мухаммада (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует) (см. Исра и Мирадж). Они вносят вклад в утверждение основ Исламской веры, связанных с благими вестями относительно следующего мира (Бушра), битвой при Бадре, завоеванием Мекки, ночным путешествием Пророка (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует), а также обвинением Мухаммада (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует) в том, что источником его вдохновения служили „адгас ахлям“, то есть бессвязные, запутанные сны. Бушра Коран 10:62-4 повествует: „Воистину, угодники Аллаха не познают страха и не будут опечалены. Они уверовали и были богобоязненны. Им предназначена радостная весть в этом мире и в Последней жизни. Слова Аллаха не подлежат отмене. Это — великое преуспеяние“. В комментариях к этим аятам приведены несколько определений „благих вестей“ (бушра), среди которых есть и „сновидение“» (ру\йа). Сновидения являются хорошими вестями этого мира; Сады Эдема (Джаннат Адн) — это благие вести следующего мира (Табари, Маджма iii, 70). Этот аят часто приводится как вступление к анализу снов. Например, аль-Кушайри начинает главу о сновидениях в своем труде под названием «Рисаля» с этого аята для того, чтобы показать, что Ислам вообще проявляет интерес к сновидениям (Кушайри, Рисаля, 304). Аль-Кушайри далее развивает мысль о легитимности сновидений, приводя пророческие высказывания, которые свидетельствуют об особой важности этого средства. Подобные тенденции также проявляются и в работах по толкованию. Аль-Суюти (умер в 911\1505) в своих комментариях к этому аяту, ссылается на множество высказываний, определяя сновидения, как часть пророчества, которое прекратило свое существование (Дурр, iii, 337-9; Ибн Атыя, Мухаррар, iii, 129). Кашани (умер после 1091\1680) по поводу того же аята ссылается на несколько шиитских обычаев с целью продемонстрировать способ, с помощью которого передаются благие вести. Как тот, который передан Аййяший из авторитетного источника Абу Джафар аль-Бакир (шейстой шиитский имам, умер в 114): Когда человек находится при смерти, ангел смерти успокаивает его, говоря, что его надежды будут исполнены и ни один из его страхов не материализуется, чтобы причинить ему боль. Потом ангел открывает перед ним врата, выходящие к Садам Эдема, и дает человеку возможность увидеть свое пристанище. Там он видит Пророка и Али, Хасана и Хусейна (Кашани, ii, 410). Образы Рая и описания воздаяния следующей жизни — самые основные идеи в литературе о сновидениях. Битва при Бадре Коран 8:43 повествует: «Вот Аллах показал их тебе во сне малочисленными. Если бы Он показал тебе их многочисленными, то вы пали бы духом и стали бы препираться при принятии решения. Однако Аллах уберег вас, ибо Он знает о том, что в груди». Некоторые толкователи сообщают, что перед битвой при Бадре, Мухаммад (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует) видел сон, в котором он увидел врага малочисленным. Разглашение этого сновидения привело к воодушевлению людей и они заявляли, что сон их Пророка (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует) был истиной. На поле боя, Аллах уменьшил количество неверных в глазах верующих, тем самым, сон Мухаммада (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует) стал явью (Mукатиль тафсир, ii, 117; Абу лейс Самарканди, Тафсир ii, 20; Рази, Тафсир xv, 174). Этот аят нужно читать вместе с аятом 3:13, который сообщает, что победа верующих при Бадре стала возможной благодаря божественному знамению (айа), которое создало иллюзию малочисленности. Таким образом, если Коран 8:43 говорит о предшествующем событиям сне-откровении, то аят 3:13 описывает некое видение (явление), которое случилось на поле боя в качестве реального осуществления сновидения. Покорение Мекки Коран 48:27 гласит: «Воистину, Аллах показал Своему Посланнику правдивый сон (или Аллах доподлинно исполнит сон, который увидел Его Посланник). Вы непременно войдете в Заповедную мечеть, если пожелает Аллах, будучи в безопасности. Вы побреете головы и подстрижетесь, не испытывая страха. Он знал то, чего вы не знали, и предопределил перед этим близкую победу». Из трех видов сновидений, представленных выше, этот аят используется, чтобы продемонстрировать первый вид, в котором сообщение или описание сбывается и становится частью реальности. Разъясняя подоплеку к этому аяту, толкователи делают акцент на том, что этот аят указывает на сновидение, которое Пророк (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует) видел до того, как он отправился в Худайбию. В этом сне он увидел верующих, входящими в Священную Мечеть. Верующие были рады услышать об этом сне, веря в то, что они войдут в Мекку в тот же год. Когда этого не случилось, так называемые «лицемеры» (мунафикун) забеспокоились. Этот аят был дан в откровение, чтобы поддержать верующих и подтвердить истинность этого сна, а именно будущее вступление в Мекку(Мукатиль, Тафсир iv, 76; Табарси, Маджма, iv, 78; Шаукани, Тафсир v, 55; Рази, тафсир xxviii, 104. Смотри также Сахих Бухари Китаб Та’бир, бааб ру’йаа-с-Салихиин). Обещание Аллаха исполнить сон («Вы непременно войдете в Заповедную мечеть») выглядит как противоречие добавлению («если пожелает Аллах»). Толкователи предлагают несколько способов урегулировать это противоречие, и все они выражают необходимость, почти даже обязательность, толковать аят так, чтобы это не противоречило идее правдивости сообщений сновидений, или, как утверждает аль-Куртуби, сновидений, как «способа передачи откровения посланникам» (Джами, xvi, 290). Ночное путешествие Коран 17:60 гласит: «Вот Мы сказали тебе: „Воистину, твой Господь объемлет людей“. Мы сделали показанное тебе видение и дерево, проклятое в Коране, искушением для людей. Мы устрашаем их, но это лишь увеличивает их великую непокорность». Толкования предлагают различные варианты того, к чему в этом аяте относится «ру\йа»: один из них — это вознесение (Исра), упомянутое в первом аяте той же самой суры. В этом случае, «ру\йа» (сновидение) может означать «ру\йа айн» (физическое видение в состоянии бодрствования", а проклятым деревом (аль-шаджара аль-мальуна) является Закум (Табарси, Маджма, iv (xv), 66; Суюти, Дурр iv, 210; Шаукани, Тафсир iii, 240; Ибн Атыя, Мухаррар iii, 467, 468). Также это могло иметь отношение ко сну Мухаммада (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует) по поводу завоевания Мекки (Коран 48:27, Табарси, Маджма iv [xv], 66; Шаукани Тафсир iii, 240; Алуси, Рух viii, 107; Ибн Атыя, Мухаррар iii, 468), или же ко сну, в котором Посланник видел обезьян, забирающихся на его минбар, растолкованный как омеядские халифы. В соответствии с последним толкованием, проклятое дерево указывает на омеядскую династию (Табарси, Маджма iv (xv), 66; Суюти, Дурр iv, 211; Шаукани Тафсир iii, 240; Алуси, Рух viii, 107; Кашани iii, 200; Ибн Атыя, Мухаррар iii, 468). В отличие от других ссылок, обсуждаемых выше, тафсир этого аята не рассматривает это сновидение как посредника, который сообщает о будущем событии, а скорее поднимает вопрос об обстоятельствах, в которых этот сон мог стать причиной смуты (фитна). Событие «вознесение» (Исра) во время сна не привело бы к смуте (фитне) (Ибн Атыя, Мухаррар iii, 468). Миражом могло быть воспринято только лишь физическое вознесение, принятие которого требует глубокой веры, и, тем самым, является испытанием для людей. Следовательно, внимание нужно уделить особенному использованию слова «ру\йа» в этом аяте. Оно означает физическое видение, нежели сновидение, и указывает на бодрствование, нежели на сон. Если эта «ру\йа» указывает на сновидение Мухаммада (да благословит его Аллах и приветствует), которое он видел до завоевания Мекки, смута (фитна) могла бы быть результатом разочарования людей, которые не стали очевидцами мгновенного исполнения этого сна (см. Покорение Мекки, выше) Адгасу Ахлям Снам этой категории дают определение ужасающих кошмаров, вводящих в заблуждение снов, или же снов, значение которых не может быть истолковано (Куртуби, Джами xi, 270). В случае с фараоном, его приближенные не знали, как истолковать его сон и назвали его «адгас ахлям» (Коран 12:44). В аяте 21:5 этот термин отнесли к Корану, переданному Мухаммадом. Он был использован теми, кто сомневался в его миссии. Несмотря на то, что это не конкретизировано в тафсире, разницу между терминами «адгас ахлям» и «ру\йа, манаам» можно легко почувствовать. Последнее рассматривается, как часть пророчества, имеющее божественное происхождение, сообщающее о будущем (см. Бушра выше); они содержат истину (см. сновидение Мухаммада до завоевания Мекки, упомянутое ранее), и право вести людей и наставлять их о том, как поступить (см. сон Авраама, все сны в суре Йусуф, упомянутые выше). «Адгас ахлям», с другой стороны, представляют вводящую в заблуждение ложь, сюжеты внушенные сатаной, и потому не имеющие силы. При анализе негативных характеристик «Адгас ахлям», достоинство и значимость «ру\йа и манаам» становится явной. Это различение также имеется и в литературе по хадисам, выраженное в широко распространенном высказывании «ру\йа» от Аллаха, «хульм» от шайтана (al-ruʾyā min Allāh wa-l-hulm min al-shayṭān, разные версии хадиса можно посмотреть: Абу Хаджир Заглюль, Маусуа v, 157). Заключение Из Всех проанализированных выше ссылок о сновидениях, только в суре Йусуф мы встречаем изложение (рассказ) содержания сна. Во всех остальных случаях, термин «сновидение» упоминается, но ничего не говорится о содержании самого сна и его причинах. Эти детали добавляют уже толкования. Эти наблюдения позволяют нам сказать, что — кроме, конечно, снов в суре Йусуф — Коран не содержит изложение самих снов. Исследование сновидений в тафсирах отображает интерес более позднего времени, когда сновидения уже получили особый статус в Исламе. Исследования влияния сновидений участились после смерти пророка, когда пророчество завершилось. В качестве части пророчества, сновидения воспринимались как средство передачи, через которые трансцендентная информация могла дойти до верующих. Это вызвало особый интерес к сновидениям, и соответственно тому доверию, которое люди питали к ним, они стали выполнять функцию, схожую с хадисами, и особенно наставляющими хадисами. Коран, конечно, не имел нужды в такого рода сновидениях. Толкования все же пытались связать хадисы и Коран. То же самое можно сказать и о связи между кораническими сновидениями и литературой о «та\бире», толкованием сновидений. Экзегетика, по мере возможности, разбирала те пути, которыми происходило толкование снов, а также обстоятельствами, в которых эти сны могли бы стать реальностью. Книги по «та\биру», которые выделились в отдельный жанр, ссылались на Коран и использовали его аяты в качестве средства для толкования. Однако, если бы не вклад толкований, то ни один коранический аят не имел бы связи с литературой о «Та\бире».

Visions (q.v.) seen while asleep which convey a message or meaning of some import. Four different terms denote dreams in the Qurʾān. The word ruʾyā appears six times ( q 12:5, 43, 100; 17:60; 37:105; 48:27); the word manām appears four times, twice meaning sleep (q.v.; q 30:23; 39:42) and twice meaning dream ( q 8:43; 37:102); bushrā, which means good tidings (see good news ), is interpreted once to mean a dream ( q 10:64). All three words signify good dreams. For bad dreams the Qurʾān uses ḥulm. This word occurs twice, both times in the expression aḍghāth aḥlām, meaning “confused dreams” ( q 12:44; 21:5). Of the ten references, six deal with biblical figures: four with Joseph (q.v.; q 12:5, 43, 44, 100) and two with Abraham (q.v.; q 37:102, 105); the other references deal with matters relating to central Islamic issues. In their remarks on verses that mention dreams, most qurʾānic commentators ad-¶ duce ḥadīth sayings of the kind found in the canonical ḥadīth collections (see ḥadīth and the qurʾān ). These sayings deal with the authority (q.v.) of dreams and their usage as a means of legitimization. (For a characterization of the nature of dreams in the ḥadīth collections, see Manām, Introduction, 36.) In citing these sayings, the exegetical works ( tafsīr) associate the qurʾānic dreams with the general Islamic attitude toward dreams as expressed in the ḥadīth. The ḥadīth contributes to this association by referring to qurʾānic dreams and citing relevant qurʾānic verses in its dream chapters (for example Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, Bāb al-taʿbīr, Bāb ruʾyā al-ṣāliḥīn). The same occurs in other sources that dedicate special chapters to dreams, using qurʾānic dreams to support their interest in the topic of dreams (for example Abū l-Qāsim al-Qushayrī, Risāla; cf. the examination of bushrā below). Some commentators suggest that qurʾānic dreams be classified according to their fulfillment and clarity. Al-Rāzī (d. 606/1210; Tafsīr, xxvi, 157), for example, mentions three classes: (1) dreams in which the message or description becomes reality, such as the message in Muḥammad's dream in Ḥudaybiya (q.v.), foretelling the conquest of Mecca (q.v.; q 48:27); (2) dreams in which the message is fulfilled in the opposite way, e.g. Abraham's dream, where the message was to sacrifice a son but the reality was the sacrifice of a lamb ( q 37:102-5; see isaac; ishmael); (3) dreams that need interpretation to be understood, exemplified by the four dreams in Sūrat Yūsuf ( q 12). The remainder of this article is devoted to an examination of qurʾānic verses that allude to dreams (with a translation of the verses), a summary of the relevant tafsīr sections as well as an analysis of their applicability to the ḥadīth. Abraham's dream q 37:102-5 reads: “And when [his son] was old enough to walk with him, he said, ‘My son, I see in a dream ( manām) that I shall sacrifice (q.v.) you; consider, what do you think?’ He said, ‘My father, do as you are commanded; you shall find me, God willing, one of the steadfast.’ When they had surrendered, and he flung him upon his brow, we called unto him, ‘Abraham, you have confirmed the vision ( ruʾyā)’…” Exegetical commentaries on these verses add details to complete the account and raise a few questions about the content and process of Abraham's dream. Through such details and questions, the status of dreams in Islamic thought, not necessarily in the Qurʾān, was articulated. Several commentators mention that when Abraham was informed about the future birth of his child, he took an oath that he would sacrifice the child to God. In a dream he was reminded of that oath (Muqātil, Tafsīr, iii, 615; Rāzī, Tafsīr, xxvi, 153; Qurṭubī, Jāmiʿ, xv, 102; Suyūṭī, Durr, v, 307). Exegesis (see exegesis …) further reports that Abraham saw the dream three nights in a row. In the morning after the first night, Abraham thought about the dream and wondered whether it was from God or from Satan. The next night he had the same dream and then he knew that the message was from God. By the third night, Abraham was ready to sacrifice his son (Rāzī, Tafsīr, xxvi, 153; Baghawī, Maʿālim, iv, 569; Qurṭubī, Jāmiʿ, xv, 101-2; Suyūṭī, Durr, v, 308). Abraham's hesitation is understood to be in disagreement with the ḥadīth that states that prophets' dreams (ruʾyā) are equal to revelation ( waḥy, Suyūṭī, Durr, v, 305; cf. Joseph's dream below). If dreams have the authority of revelation, Abraham should not have hesitated. Furthermore, the Qurʾān narrates that Abraham consulted his son ¶ about the sacrifice (fa-nẓur mādhā tarā). This, in the eyes of some commentators, constitutes a contradiction: If dreams are authoritative, as indicated by the ḥadīth, why did this dream not elicit Abraham's immediate trust and certitude (see …)? On the other hand, if the dream does not supply decisive proof of its reliability, which may explain the hesitation, how did it happen that Abraham decided to sacrifice his son after all? Al-Rāzī's (d. 606/1210) ( Tafsīr, xxvi, 153) answer to both questions is that Abraham hesitated with regard to the dream ( ruʾyā) but was reassured by a clear revelation (al- waḥy al-ṣarīkh). Attention should be given to the terminology used by al-Rāzī: Although the verse itself uses the word manām, the commentator refers to the word ruʾyā without indicating whether it was a synonym for manām or not. When dealing with ruʾyā, he also refers to waḥy. The difference between the two may be associated with the ḥadīth that defines dreams as part of prophecy (see Abū Hājir Zaghlūl, Mawsūʿa, v, 156; Kinberg, Literal dreams, 283-4, and n. 12; Qurṭubī, ad Joseph's dream, below). Al-Rāzī, when explaining how Abraham made the decision, puts ruʾyā and waḥy in a hierarchy, in which the latter authorizes the former. The tafsīr emphasizes that Abraham was so determined about what he was going to do that the efforts of Satan to change his mind were in vain (Baghawī, Maʿālim, iv, 570; Suyūṭī, Durr, v, 306-7). Abraham made all the preparations and when he was about to sacrifice his son, a voice was heard, complimenting him for trusting the dream (ruʾyā, q 37:105). This, according to al-Rāzī, indicates Abraham's awareness of the fact that the message delivered in his dream was obligatory. This does not mean, however, that the command was actually carried out (Rāzī, Tafsīr, xxvi, 156). Following this argument, al-Rāzī classifies this ¶ dream among those in which the message is fulfilled in an opposite way (id., 157). Dreams related to Joseph In Sūrat Yūsuf ( q 12) there are four dreams that are symbolic and require interpretation. As such they fit the third category of dreams mentioned above. In the beginning of the sūra ( q 12:3), Joseph tells his father that he dreamt he had seen eleven stars, the sun and the moon, all bowing down before him (cf. Gen 37:4-6; see …). Later in the sūra we read about the dreams of the two men who met Joseph in prison. One saw himself pressing grapes, the other saw himself carrying bread (q.v.) on his head while birds were picking at it. Joseph interpreted the dreams to mean that the first man will pour wine for his king and the other will be crucified ( q 35-41; cf. Gen 40:5-19). Verse 12:43 tells of Pharaoh's (q.v.) dream about the seven fat cows eating the seven lean ones and about the seven green and seven withered ears of corn. Pharaoh's counselors could not interpret the dream and defined it as aḍghāth aḥlām, “confused dreams” ( q 12:44). Joseph interprets the symbols as standing for seven good years that will be devoured by seven bad years ( q 12:47-9). Toward the end of the sūra Joseph's dream, mentioned at the outset of the sūra, is fulfilled with the arrival of his family to Egypt: “And he lifted his father and mother upon the throne and they fell down prostrate before him. ‘See, father,’ he said, ‘this is the interpretation of my vision of long ago; my Lord (q.v.) has made it true’” ( q 12:100). As in the case of Abraham's dream, here too exegesis contributes to the understanding of the status of dreams in Islam. While dealing with the verse that cites Jacob's (q.v.) advice to Joseph not to tell his dream to his brothers ( q 12:5), most commentators ¶ focus on the prophetic nature of this dream and elaborate on the relationship between prophecy and dreams. Al-Wāḥidī (d. 468/1076; Wasīṭ, ii, 600), for example, explains that Joseph was a prophet and states that prophets' dreams ( ruʾyā) are equal to revelation ( waḥy, cf. Abraham's dream above). Jacob knew that his sons, Joseph's brothers, would understand the meaning of the dream and would try to do away with Joseph. Thus he advised him not to tell them his dream. For the same verse, al-Qurṭubī (d. 671/1272) adduces some of the ḥadīth sayings that actually underscore the reliability of dreams such as the one which defines dreams as part of prophecy (the 26th, 40th, 44th, 46th, 49th, 50th part of prophecy, Jāmiʿ, ix, 122-4; cf. Abraham's dream above). He further examines the qualities of dreams as truth-holders, as prophecies that come true, and compares different kinds of dreams and different times of dreaming (Qurṭubī, Jāmiʿ, 125-9). He ends his commentary with the presentation of Joseph as a prophet and as the best dream-interpreter on earth (id., 129, ad v. 6). In his commentary on the verses dealing with Joseph's interpretation of the dreams of the two men in prison (q 12:35-42), al-Qurṭubī raises a question concerning the actualization of dreams according to their interpretation: When the dreamer tells the truth, his dream will be fulfilled according to its interpretation. The process is different when the dreamer lies. In this case, only the interpretation of a prophet will be carried out. This is the way to understand Joseph's words: “The matter is decided whereon you enquire” (q 12:41). Al-Qurṭubī explains that when Joseph interpreted the dream of the doomed man, the latter denied having the dream. To that Joseph answered, ¶ “Whether you saw it or not, ‘the matter is decided whereon you enquire’” (Qurṭubī, Jāmiʿ, ix, 193). The question of the fulfillment of dreams is raised again by al-Qurṭubī when dealing with the number of years that passed from the time Joseph had his dream as a boy until he met his family in Egypt as a hero (q 12:100). Forty years, as stated by al-Qurṭubī, is the longest time that can pass from the time the dream occurred until its actualization (id., 264 ad q 12:100). Al-Qurṭubī's elaboration conveys the exegetical inclination to consider qurʾānic dreams an integral part of the literature of dream interpretation ( taʿbīr). An examination of the taʿbīr literature shows that although it also manifests that it has been influenced by foreign cultures such as Babylonian (Bland, Muhammedan science, 119; Fahd, The dream, 351), Greek (Bland, Muhammedan science, 123-4; Fahd, The dream, 248; Somogyi, Interpretation, 2) and Jewish (Kister, Interpretation, 99-101). The literature on oneiromancy is, however, Islamic in nature: A basic requirement imposed on every Muslim dream-interpreter is a thorough knowledge of the tradition of qurʾānic commentary ( tafsīr) from which many ways of interpretation derive (Bland, Muhammedan science, 132). Qurʾānic verses are also often cited in taʿbīr works and are frequently used as means of interpretation (id., 122; Kister, Interpretation, 90, 91; Somogyi, Interpretation, 15-8). Joseph appears in taʿbīr books in illustration of methods of interpretation (Bland, Muhammedan science, 125). Certain parts of the Qurʾān are considered protectors against bad dreams (id., 129-30) and verses heard or seen in dreams are interpreted according to the nature of the sūra in which they occur (id., 143). More qurʾānic references to dreams deal ¶ with issues taken from the biography of Muḥammad (see …) and contribute to the establishment of basic elements of Islamic belief related to good tidings about the next world (bushrā), the battle of Badr, the conquest of Mecca, the nocturnal journey of the Prophet (see …) and the accusation against Muḥammad of being inspired by aḍghāth aḥlām, “confused dreams” (see …). Bushrā q 10:62-4 reads: “Surely God's friends — no fear shall be on them, neither shall they sorrow. Those who believe, and are godfearing — for them is good tidings in the present life and in the world to come. There is no changing the words of God; that is the mighty triumph.” Several definitions of “good tidings” (bushrā) are adduced in the commentary on this verse, among which “dream” ( ruʾyā) is one. Dreams are the good tidings in the present world; the gardens of Eden (jannāt Adan) are the good tidings of the next world (Ṭabarsī, Majmaʿ, iii, 70). Apart from commentary, this verse is often adduced as an opening to examination of dreams. For example, al-Qushayrī begins the chapter about dreams in his Risāla with this verse in order to legitimize the interest Islam has in dreams (Qushayrī, Risāla, Bāb ruʾyā al-qawm, 304). Al-Qushayrī further develops the legitimization of dreams by adducing a set of prophetic sayings that denote the special value of this medium. Similar traditions also appear in exegetical works. Al-Suyūṭī (d. 911/1505), in his commentary on this verse, cites a variety of sayings defining dreams as a part of prophecy that has ceased to exist (Durr, iii, 337-9; Ibn ʿAṭiyya, Muḥarrar, iii, 129). Kāshānī (d. after 1091/1680), on the same verse, quotes a few Shīʿite traditions to demonstrate the way in which the good tidings ¶ are delivered. Such is the one transmitted by ʿAyyāshī (d. early fourth/tenth) on the authority of Abū Jaʿfar al-Bāqir (the sixth Shīʿī Imām, d. 114/733): When a man is about to die, the angel of death comforts him by telling him that his hopes will be fulfilled and that none of his fears will materialize to hurt him. Then the angel opens a door facing the gardens of Eden and lets the man see his future abode (see garden ); there he sees the Prophet and ʿAlī (see ʿalī b. abī ṭālib ) and Ḥasan and Ḥusayn (Kāshānī, Ṣāfī, ii, 410; see family of the prophet; shīʿism and the qurʾān). Visions of paradise and descriptions of rewards in the next world are the most common motifs in the literature of dreams (see reward and punishment ). By using these motifs, and by referring to ḥadīth sayings that legitimize the usage of dreams, commentators try to anchor dream literature in the Qurʾān. The battle of Badr q 8:43 reads: “When God showed them to you [Muḥammad] in your dream ( manām) as few; and had he shown them as many you would have lost heart, and quarrelled about the matter; but God saved [you]; he knows the thoughts in the breasts.” Some commentators report that before the battle of Badr (q.v.), Muḥammad had a dream in which he saw the enemy to be few in number. Upon divulging the dream, the people were encouraged and declared that their Prophet's dream revealed the truth. In the battlefield, God, to fulfill Muḥammad's dream, decreased the number of infidels in the eyes of the believers (Muqātil, Tafsīr, ii, 117; Abū l-Layth al-Samarqandī, Tafsīr, ii, 20; cf. Rāzī, Tafsīr, xv, 174). This verse should be read together with q 3:13 which states that the victory of the believers at Badr became possible through a divine sign (āya) which had caused a deceptive change in the number. Thus, if q 8:43¶ deals with a preliminary, revealing dream, q 3:13 describes some kind of apparition (q.v.) that took place on the battlefield in the fulfillment of the dream. The conquest of Mecca q 48:27 reads: “God has indeed fulfilled the vision ( ruʾyā). He vouchsafed to his messenger truly: ‘You shall enter the holy mosque (q.v.), if God wills, in security, your heads shaved, your hair cut short, not fearing.’ He knew what you knew not, and gave you a victory beforehand.” Of the three groups of dreams presented above, this verse is used to demonstrate the first kind, where the message or description is fulfilled and becomes a part of reality. In explaining the background to the verse, commentators emphasize that the verse alludes to a dream which the Prophet had before he went to Ḥudaybiya. In the dream, he saw the believers entering the holy mosque. The believers were pleased to hear the dream, believing that they would enter Mecca (q.v.) that same year. When this did not happen, the so-called hypocrites ( munāfiqūn, see hypocrites and hypocrisy ) became doubtful. The verse was revealed to encourage believers and to certify the trustworthiness of the dream (see occasions of revelation ), namely the future entrance into Mecca (Muqātil, Tafsīr, iv, 76; Ṭabarsī, Majmaʿ, iv, 78; Shawkānī, Tafsīr, v, 55; Rāzī, Tafsīr, xxviii, 104. See also Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ, Bāb al-taʿbīr, Bāb ruʾyā al-ṣāliḥīn). God's promise to fulfill the dream (“You shall enter the holy mosque”) seems to contradict the addition “if God wills.” Exegesis suggests several ways to settle the contradiction, all of which convey a need, almost an obligation, to interpret the verse in a manner that does not contradict the idea of dreams as truth-holders or, as stated by al-Qurṭubī, as “means to deliver revelations to prophets” (Jāmiʿ, xvi, 290). The nocturnal journey of the Prophet q 17:60 reads: “And when we said to you, ‘Surely your Lord encompasses humankind,’ and we made the vision ( ruʾyā), that we showed you, an ordeal ( fitna) for humankind and [also] the tree cursed in the Qurʾān; and we frighten them, but it only increases them in great insolence.” Exegetical literature offers various occasions to which the ruʾyā in this verse may refer: One is the ascension (q.v.; isrāʾ ), mentioned in the first verse of the same sūra. In this case, ruʾyā (dream) might mean ruʾyat ʿayn, “physical seeing in wakefulness” and the cursed tree (al-shajara al-malʿūna) is the zaqūm (Ṭabarsī, Majmaʿ, iv (xv), 66; Suyūṭī, Durr, iv, 210; Shawkānī, Tafsīr, iii, 240; Ibn ʿAṭiyya, Muḥarrar, iii, 467, 468; see trees ). The reference could also be to Muḥammad's dream regarding the conquest of Mecca ( q 48:27; Ṭabarsī, Majmaʿ, iv [xv], 66; Shawkānī, Tafsīr, iii, 240; Ālūsī, Rūḥ, viii, 107; Ibn ʿAṭiyya, Muḥarrar, iii, 468) or to the dream in which the Prophet saw monkeys climbing his pulpit (minbar), interpreted as being the Umayyad caliphs. According to the last interpretation, the cursed tree alludes to the Umayyad dynasty (Ṭabarsī, Majmaʿ, iv (xv), 66; Suyūṭī, Durr, iv, 211; Shawkānī, Tafsīr, iii, 240; Ālūsī, Rūḥ, viii, 107; Kāshānī, Ṣāfī, iii, 200; Ibn ʿAṭiyya, Muḥarrar, iii, 468). Unlike the other references discussed above, the exegesis on this verse does not examine the dream as a medium which reveals a future event but rather raises a question as to the circumstances under which the dream could cause fitna, “ordeal, insolence, dissension (q.v.).” Performing the ascension(isrāʾ) through a dream would not cause fitna (Ibn ʿAṭiyya, Muḥarrar, iii, 468). Only physical ascension could be considered a miracle, the acceptance of which requires profound belief and as such puts people to the test. Following this line, attention should be given to the exceptional ¶ usage of ruʾyā in this verse. It means physical seeing rather than dreaming and indicates wakefulness rather than sleep (see seeing and hearing ). If that ruʾyā refers to the dream Muḥammad had before the conquest of Mecca, fitna could be the outcome of the disappointment of the people who did not witness the immediate fulfillment of the dream (see “The conquest of Mecca” above). Aḍghāth aḥlām Dreams of this category are defined as frightful nightmares, deceptive dreams or dreams with a meaning that cannot be interpreted (Qurṭubī, Jāmiʿ, xi, 270). In the case of Pharaoh, the counselors did not know how to interpret his dream and named it aḍghāth aḥlām ( q 12:44). In q 21:5 the term refers to the Qurʾān brought by Muḥammad and was used by those who doubted his mission. Although not elaborated in the tafsīr, the difference between the term aḍghāth aḥlām and ruʿyā/ manām can be easily perceived. The latter are considered part of prophecy, of divine origin, revealing the future (see Bushrā above), they hold the truth (see Muḥammad's dream before the conquest of Mecca, mentioned above) and have the authority to lead people and instruct them on how to act (see Abraham's dream, and all the dreams in Sūrat Yūsuf, mentioned above). Aḍghāth aḥlām, on the other hand, are represented as misleading lies, stories inspired by demons and, as such, invalid. By comparing the negative features of aḍghāth aḥlām, the value and weight of ruʾyā and manām become prominent. This differentiation also appears in the ḥadīth literature, expressed in a widespread saying “ruʾyā is from God and ḥulm is from Satan” (al-ruʾyā min Allāh wa-l-ḥulm min al-shayṭān, for a reference to different versions of this ḥadīth, see Abū Hājir Zaghlūl, Mawsūʿa, v, 157). Conclusions Of all the references to dreams examined above, only in Sūrat Yūsuf do we come across dream narratives (q.v.). In all other cases, the term “dream” is mentioned but nothing is said about the content of the dream, the reason for it or its background ( asbāb al-nuzūl ; see occasions of revelation ); these are elaborated in the exegetical literature. This observation allows us to say that — except for the dreams in Sūrat Yūsuf — the Qurʾān does not contain narratives of dreams. The examination of dreams in the exegetical literature reflects the concerns of later times, when dreams had already gained a special status in Islam. The legitimization of the usage of dreams, established in the ḥadīth, was set to justify the special role dreams began to play in the nascent Islamic community that had lost its Prophet. People's search for the authority of dreams incre­ased after the death of the Prophet, when prophecy came to an end (see Kinberg, Literal dreams, 283, and n. 12; also Von Grünebaum, Cultural function, 7). As part of prophecy, dreams were perceived as vehicles through which transcendental information could reach the believers. This created a special interest in dreams and, due to the trust people had in them, they began to function in a way similar to that of the ḥadīth, especially that of edifying ḥadīth (for further details see Kinberg, Literal dreams, 283-92 [Dreams as a functional parallel to ḥadīth]). The Qurʾān natu­rally was not in need of this kind of dream. The exegetical literature, nevertheless, tried to relate ḥadīth and Qurʾān. The same can be said of the relationship between qurʾānic dreams and taʿbīr literature, the interpretation of dreams. Exegesis, whenever applicable, dealt with the way in which the interpretation of dreams operated and the circumstances under which they could be fulfilled. Taʿbīr books, ¶ which developed into a distinct genre (for details see Manām, Introduction, 43-6), referred to the Qurʾān and used its verses as a means of interpretation. Nonetheless, were it not for the contribution of tafsīr, no qurʾānic verse would have been associated with the taʿbīr literature.

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Dreams

RUʾYĀ, MANĀM, BUSHRĀ, ḤULM, TAʿBĪR AL-RUʾYĀ, TAʾWĪL AL-AḤĀDĪTH

This entry comprises the following sections:

(i) Definitions and Usage;

(ii) Dreams of the Prophets;

(iii) Dreams of the Prophet Muḥammad, upon him blessings and peace;

(iv) Dream of Prophet Ibrāhīm, upon him peace;

(v) Four Dreams Related to the Prophet Yūsuf, upon him peace;

(vi) Types of Dreams;

(vii) Dreams as Glad Tidings;

(viii) Etiquettes and Rulings;

(ix) Dream Interpretation;

(x) Selected Literature;

(xi) Bibliography.

Definitions and Usage

Dreams are defined as the sleeper’s seeing visions, hearing sounds, touch, movement, and other perceptions resembling sensory experiences. The Qurʾān uses four terms for dreams:

i. ruʾyā (pl. ruʾan), from the root r-ʾ-y, meaning visions seen in sleep (fīl-manām) (Rāghib, Mufradāt). This root appears 328 times in the Qurʾān (ʿAbd al-Bāqī, Muʿjam), seven times in the sense of dreams (Q 12:5, 12:43x2, 12:100; 17:60; 37:105; 48:27);

ii. manām, from the root n-w-m, which is a synonym of the verbal noun nawm (“sleep”) (Rāghib, Mufradāt). This root appears nine times (ʿAbd al-Bāqī, Muʿjam); manām occurs twice for sleep (Q 30:23; 39:42) and twice for dreams (Q 8:43; 37:102);

iii. bushrā, from the root b-sh-r, meaning glad tiding (see GLAD TIDINGS AND WARNINGS). This root is used 123 times in various verbal and nominal forms (ʿAbd al-Bāqī, Muʿjam). The noun bushrā appears fifteen times; only one usage (Q 10:64) is interpreted as “dream” (see below); and

iv. ḥulm, from the root ḥ-l-m, which has negative connotations in the Qurʾān and Hadith. The Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, said, “A good dream (al-ruʾyā al-ṣāliḥa) is from Allah and a ḥulm is from Satan” (Bukhārī, Badʾ al-khalq, ṣifat Iblīs wa junūdih; Muslim, Ruʾyā). This root appears 21 times in various nominal and adjectival forms (ʿAbd al-Bāqī, Muʿjam). Ḥulm occurs twice (Q 12:44; 21:5), in the phrase aḍghāthu aḥlāmin (“confused dreams”, see below).

Dreams of the Prophets

With the exception of Q 10:64, all reference to dreams in the Qurʾān occur in relation to three Prophets: Muḥammad (q.v.), Ibrāhīm (q.v.) (Q 37:102-105), and Yūsuf (q.v.) (Q 12:4, 12:35-43), upon them all blessings and peace. The dreams of the Prophets are a form of divine revelation. As Ibn ʿAbbās (3BH-68/619-688) said,

“The dreams of Prophets are revelation” (Tirmidhī, Manāqib, manāqib Abī Ḥafṣ ʿUmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb; Ḥākim, Tafsīr, 2:468). Abū ʿAbd Allāh Muḥammad b. Aḥmad al-Qurṭubī (d. 671/1273)

cites Muḥammad b. Kaʿb (108/726), who said, “Revelation came to the Prophets both during their sleep and in their waking state; and this is proven by a hadith of the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, ‘The eyes of the Prophets sleep, but their hearts sleep not’” (Tafsīr, sub Q 37:102). According to Fakhr al-Dīn Muḥammad b. ʿUmar al-Rāzī (543-606/1148-1209), the dreams of Prophets have three stations (maqāmāt) with respect to their fulfillment: they are either (i) fulfilled as dreamt (ʿalā wafq al-ruʾya), as with the one alluded to in Q 48:27, You will surely enter the Sacred Mosque; (ii) realized through the occurrence of the opposite (mā yaqaʿ ʿalā al-ḍidd), as with Ibrāhīm’s dream that he sacrificed his son (cf. Q 37:107); or (iii) realized in a way that needs further interpretation, as with the dream vision of the young Yūsuf, upon him peace (q.v.) (see below for these examples). “This is why dream interpreters hold that their dreams (manāmāt) are true and inevitably come to pass in one of these three ways” (Rāzī, Tafsīr, sub Q 37:102-105).

Dreams of the Prophet Muḥammad, upon him blessings and peace

True dreams marked the onset of his prophethood, as related by ʿĀʾisha (d. 58/678), Allah be well-pleased with her: “The commencement of the revelation to the Messenger of Allah, upon him blessings and peace, was in the form of true, good, and truthful dreams (al-ruʾyā al-ṣāliḥa) seen in sleep, which came true like the light of daybreak (mithl falaq al-ṣubḥ).” These dreams were followed by the visitation of Jibrīl (q.v.), who brought the first revelation (Q 96:1-5) (Bukhārī, Badʾ al-waḥy, kayf kāna badʾ al-waḥy...; Tafsīrs of Qushayrī; Qurṭubī; Rāzī; Samarqandī; Ṭabarī; sub Q 96:1-5). “The dreams before the commencement of the revelation contained no jumble and confusion (ḍighth); they were initiation (tamhīd) and preparation (tawṭiʾa) for the reception of Divine revelation in wakefulness” (Ibn Ḥajar, Fatḥ al-Bārī).

Abū Zakariyyā Yaḥyā b. Sharaf al-Nawawī (631-676/1234-1277) explains the wisdom behind these true dreams:

The commencement [of revelation] with true and pious dreams was indicative of Divine Wisdom; they were a gradual introduction for the Prophet, so that [the visitation of] the angel would not surprise and frighten him, blessings and peace upon him, and give him the full burden of Prophethood unexpectedly (wa yaʾtiyahu ṣarīḥ al-nubuwwa baghtatan)... and glad tidings of divine blessings, like true dreams and hearing rocks greeting him, upon him blessings and peace. In this way he became conscious of the immense task that was to come.

(Nawawī, Sharḥ Muslim; ʿIyāḍ, Sharḥ Muslim, Badʾ al-waḥy ilā Rasūl Allāh ṣallā Allāh ʿalayh wa sallam)

Dreams continued throughout the life of the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace. Some are recorded in Hadith collections, often in distinct chapters (e.g. Bukhārī, Taʿbīr; Muslim, Ruʾyā). These dreams contained portents of events, of which some came to pass during his lifetime, others after his death, and others are yet to be fulfilled (see MUḤAMMAD, UPON HIM BLESSINGS AND PEACE).

Concerning the Battle of Badr

In Q 8:43, the Prophet is reminded of the dream he had before the Battle of Badr (2/624), fought on Criterion Day (yawm al-furqān), the day the two hosts met (Q 8:41) (see BADR). This dream providentially prepared the believers for their historic encounter with an army three times their number: And recall when Allah showed them in your dream as being few. If He had shown them to you as many, you would have surely faltered and quarreled over the matter; but Allah delivered [you]. Truly He knows what lies within breasts (Q 8:43). A restful sleep (Q 8:11) preceded the encounter with the disbelievers, who came out in arrogance in the name of their idols. The Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, supplicated at length both the night before and as the battle commenced, saying: “O Allah, grant me what You promised me. If You allow this small Muslim band to perish, You will no longer be worshiped on the face of the earth!” (Muslim, Jihād wal-siyar, imdād bil-malāʾika; see also Bukhārī, Maghāzī, idh tastaghīthūna Rabbakum). When the Prophet saw the disbelieving army in his dream as being few in number, he informed his Companions (see: Companion(s) of the Prophet), who said in response, “The dream of the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, is true (ḥaqq);” and Allah Most High made their foe appear as few in the eyes of the believers so as to confirm and fulfill the dream (Samarqandī, Baḥr). At the same time, Allah Most High made the army of the believers seem small in the eyes of the pagans (Q 8:44).

“The wisdom in the first decrease was to confirm the dream of the Messenger, upon him blessings and peace, and also to strengthen [the believers’] hearts and fighting spirit. The wisdom in the second decrease was that when the pagans deemed the Muslims to be few in number they lowered their guard and did not make complete preparation against them; that became the means for the believers to overcome them” (Rāzī, Tafsīr, sub Q 8:44). In Q 3:13 this Divine succor on the day when the two hosts met is called a sign for you. The verse indicates that Allah Most High made the believers see the enemy only as twice their own number, instead of three times. Thus in effect He decreased their real number so that the believers could expect victory because of the piety of their hearts, for they already knew of the Divine promise of victory over twice their number (see Q 8:66: So if there be one hundred of you [who are] steadfast, they will overcome two hundred) (Wāḥidī, Wajīz).

Concerning the Sacred Mosque (Q 48:27)

While in Madina (q.v.) the Prophet, blessings and peace upon him, dreamt that he was entering the Sacred Mosque in Makka (see: Makka al-Mukarrama). Divine confirmation of the dream came in Q 48:27: Indeed, Allah has fulfilled for His Messenger the dream in truth: you will surely enter the Sacred Mosque in security, if Allah wills, with your heads shaved and [hair] shortened, not fearing. He knew what you know not, and He has granted besides that a near victory.

The Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, gathered his Companions, told them his dream, and announced a pilgrimage trip (see ʿUMRA; HAJJ). The Companions rejoiced at the prospect of visiting the Sacred House after six years of absence from Makka. Some seven hundred Companions

left Madina in Dhūl-Qaʿda 6/628, taking 70 camels intended for sacrifice. When they reached al- Ḥudaybiya (also al-Ḥudaybiyya: Yāqūṭ, Muʿjam 2:229), 24 kilometers from the Kaʿba and just

outside the boundary of the sacred precinct, the Makkan disbelievers prevented them from entering the city. After negotiations, the Treaty of Ḥudaybiyya was concluded (see ALLIANCE AND TREATY), according to which Muslims were to postpone their pilgrimage until the following year. Some Companions were disappointed. ʿUmar b. al-Khaṭṭāb (d. 23/644) asked the Prophet, “Did you not tell us that we would go to the House and circumambulate?” “Yes,” the Prophet responded, “But did I tell you that you would do so this year?” (see Tafsīrs of Qurṭubī; Ibn Kathīr; Ibn Hishām, Sīra, Amr al-Ḥudaybiyya, 2:308).

When the pilgrims returned to Madina, the hypocrites mocked them, saying, “We did not enter; we did not shave [heads]” (Rāzī, Tafsīr). Yet all that the Prophet had seen came to pass at the time decreed and prescribed for it (Bayḍāwī, Tafsīr). As Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq (d. 12/634) said, there was no fixed time for the fulfillment of the dream (Qurṭubī, Tafsīr). Exegetes explain that the phrase if Allah wills in the verse in question indicates reported speech (ḥikāya): the Divine Words were transmitted to the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, by Jibrīl, upon him peace, who told him, “You will surely enter the Sacred Mosque, if Allah wills” (Samarqandī, Baḥr, Qurṭubī; Tafsīr; Makkī, Hidāya, sub Q 48:27). Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī adds that in shāʾa Llāh is also intended to teach etiquette (adab) to the believers and is a further reminder of His Words in Q 18:23-24, And say not of anything ‘Indeed I will do that tomorrow’, without [adding]: If Allah wills (Rāzī, Tafsīr).

The Vision in Q 17:60

The majority of exegetes interpret the word al-ruʾyā in Q 17:60 as referring to a waking ocular vision (ruʾyā ʿayn), not a dream seen while asleep; this is based on the explanation by Ibn ʿAbbās (Tafsīrs of Mujāhid; Ṭabarī; Farrāʾ, Maʿānī; Māturīdi, Taʾwīlāt; Makkī, Hidāya; Khāzin, Lubāb; also cited by Bukhārī, Tafsīr al-Qurʾān). The verse reads: And [remember] when We said to you, “Surely thy Lord encompasses mankind.” We made the vision (al-ruʾyā) that We showed you as naught but a test for humankind, and the accursed tree in the Qurʾān. And We inspire fear in them, but it increases them in naught but great rebellion. The exegetes explain that the verse refers to the Night Journey (see NIGHT JOURNEY AND ASCENSION) mentioned at the beginning of the sura (Q 17:1); and, implicitly, to those things miraculously shown that night to the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace—all of which he saw with his eyes. The phrase as a test (fitna) for humankind alludes to the difficulty some had in accepting the Prophet’s account of his Night Journey, which led to apostasy by those weak in faith and increased the disbelievers’ transgression (Tafsīrs of Ṭabarī, Samarqandī, Baghawī, Ibn Kathīr, and Qurṭubī; Ibn ʿAṭiyya, Muḥarrar).

Two other interpretations of this Prophetic vision (al-ruʾyā) are recorded in several commentaries but are classed as weak or rejected: (i) that it was a dream about the conquest (q.v.) of Makka (Bayḍāwī, Tafsīr); and (ii) that it was a dream of the sons of al-Ḥakam b. Abī al-ʿĀṣ of Banū Umayya climbing the mosque pulpit like monkeys (Tafsīrs of Ṭabarī, Ibn Abī Ḥātim, Samʿānī, Suyūṭī, Durr).

Dream of Prophet Ibrāhīm, upon him peace

The prayer of Ibrāhīm, upon him peace, to have a virtuous child was granted (Q 37:100-101), but when he reached the age of exertion (al-saʿy), Ibrāhīm dreamt that he was sacrificing his son. He related the dream to him: “O my [dear] son, I see while dreaming that I am to sacrifice you; so consider, what do you think?” He replied, “[Dear] father, do as you are bidden. You will find me, God willing, among the steadfast.” But when they had submitted and Ibrāhīm had laid him upon his forehead, We called unto him, “O Ibrāhīm, you have fulfilled the dream.” Thus do We recompense the virtuous. Truly this was a manifest trial; then We ransomed him with an immense sacrifice. And We left for him among later generations, “Peace be upon Ibrāhīm.” Thus do We recompense the virtuous. Truly he was among Our believing servants (Q 37:102-111).

The early exegete Muqātil b. Sulaymān al-Balkhī (d. 150/767) said, “Ibrāhīm saw this dream on three consecutive nights” (Muqātil, Tafsīr). Several later exegetes relate Muqātil’s statement about the recurrence of the dream for three nights to the names and timing of the rites of Ḥajj (q.v.). According to these interpretations, when Ibrāhīm, upon him peace, heard a voice say, “Allah orders you to sacrifice this son of yours,” he reflected (tarawwā) on this in the morning, wondering if it were from Allah or from Satan—whence the name of that day as the “Day of Reflection” (yawm al-tarwiya, that is, 8 Dhū al-Ḥijja). Upon seeing the same dream again the next night, he knew (ʿarafa) that it was from Allah; so that day is called the “Day of Knowing” (yawmu ʿarafa, 9 Dhū al-Ḥijja). On the third night he saw the same dream and in the morning he took his son to sacrifice him—that day is now known as the “Day of Sacrifice” (yawm al-naḥr, 10 Dhū al-Ḥijja) (cf. Tafsīrs of Qushayrī; Rāzī; Qurṭubī; Ibn ʿĀdil, Lubāb; Ibn ʿAjība, Baḥr, sub Q 37:102).

Yet, for many exegetes, this three days’ delay in acting upon the dream raised a serious question: Since the dreams of the Prophets are a form of revelation, then why would a Prophet not act upon it the very next day? Muqātil was severely criticized by certain authorities including the Hadith master al-Bukhārī (194-256/810-870) and the jurist Abū Ḥanīfa (d. 150/767) as being unreliable and “to be disregarded” (matrūk), while others praise him and the Imam Muḥammad b. Idrīs al-Shāfiʿī ((150-204/767-820) said, “all people are the dependants of Muqātil in tafsīr” (see Ibn Ḥajar, Tahdhīb al-tahdhīb, 10:282-83). Al-Ṭabarī (d. 310/923) omits Muqātil’s narrative altogether and asserts: “The Prophets’ dreams are sure knowledge (yaqīn)”. He cites several authorities in support including the Successor-exegete Qatāda b. Diʿāma (d. 117/735), who said, “Dreams of the Prophets are true (ḥaqq); when they see something in their sleep, they act upon it”; the Successor ʿUbayd b. ʿUmayr (d. 73/692), who said, “The Prophets’ dreams are revelation” and then recited, I see while dreaming that I am to sacrifice you (Tafsīr, sub Q 37:102, also quoted by Bukhārī, Wuḍūʾ, al-takhfīf fīl-wuḍūʾ); and ʿIkrima (d. 107/725), who said, “Both father and son submitted to the decree: the son accepted his sacrifice, and the father accepted to sacrifice him” (Tafsīr). Others such as Thaʿlabī, Wāḥidī, Baghawī and Qurṭubī all mention Muqātil’s account. The clearest and most detailed explanation of the Prophets’ dreams is to be found in the Aḥkām al-Qurʾān of the Andalusian jurist and exegete Abū Bakr Ibn al-ʿArabī’s (d. 543/1148), which devotes a section (“The question of the dreams of the Prophets”) of commentary on Q 37:102 to the matter:

The Prophets’ dreams are revelation (waḥy)... Satan has no power to deceive them or induce false imaginings in them (takhyīl). There is no evidence to show that [Satan] can bring obscurity and cause confusion (ikhtilāṭ) to them, for their hearts are pure, their faculties and thoughts are crystal-clear (wa-afkāruhum ṣaqīla). Therefore, anything that is sent down to them, or anything that the King [Allah Most High] casts into their hearts (fī rūʿihim)—any likeness He coins for them—is authentic. That is why ʿĀʾisha, Allah be well-pleased with her, said, “I did not expect a passage of the Qurʾān to be revealed and recited in connection with me; but I hoped that the Messenger of Allah, upon him blessings and peace, would have a dream in which Allah would absolve me.”... Therefore, it is proven that the Prophets’ dreams are revelation, for a dream either (i) consists of predominance of confused visions, as is claimed by philosophers—but confused visions cannot appear in [the dreams of] the Prophets; or (ii) is a speech, a suggestion of the soul (ḥadīth al-nafs)—but Ibrāhīm never suggested to himself to sacrifice his son; or (iii) can be Satanic interference (talāʿub al-shayṭān)—but Satan has no power over their imagination and no way to make them act idly in a foolish manner, as we have already elucidated and explained in detail.

Explaining the sequence of events and linguistic structure of the dream verse, Ibn al-ʿArabī goes on to dismiss all fanciful explanations such as those which have Ibrāhīm, upon him peace, close his eyes and put the knife to his son, only to find that the latter’s skin has turned into copper:

Ibrāhīm said to his son, “I have seen in a dream that I sacrifice you”. Both father and son understood the dream in its outward manifestation and name (bi-ẓāhirihā wa ismihā). Hence [the son] said to him, “Do as you are commanded, for this is a command from Allah Most High.” Both of them knew that the dreams of the Prophets are revelation from Allah. They both surrendered to the decree of Allah, this one (Ibrāhīm) with regard to the apple of his eye (i.e. his son), and that one (Ismāʿīl) with regard to his own life. Instead, he was given a ransom and was told, “This is your ransom, so use it to obey what you saw in the dream; for this is the actuality of what We demanded of you.” Therefore [the command to sacrifice] was an allusion (kināya), not literal (ism); thus he confirmed the dream by his hastening to obey, for believing in the obligation and preparing for the action are indispensable. When they both accepted the obligation and prepared for the act— he [the father] as the sacrificer and he [the son] as the sacrificed—the sacrifice seen in the dream was replaced by a ransom, as an indication of the promised truth.

(Ibn al-ʿArabī, Aḥkām, sub Q 37:102, masʾalat al-naskh qabl al-fiʿl, 4:33)

Four Dreams Related to the Prophet Yūsuf, upon him peace

The chronicle (q.v.) of the Prophet Yūsuf (q.v.), upon him peace, related in Sūrat Yūsuf (Q 12), begins with the narration of a dream: “O father, I have seen eleven stars and the sun and the moon; I saw them bowing before me.” His father, the Prophet Yaʿqūb (q.v.), upon him peace, tells him, “Recount not your dream to your brothers, lest they devise some scheme against you.” “He understood the meaning of the dream to be a prophecy of Yūsuf attaining an exalted rank” (Ibn Juzayy, Tafsīr) and that his brothers and parents would submit to him (yakhḍaʿūn lah) (Rāzī, Tafsīr, sub Q 12:5). So Yaʿqūb, upon him peace, feared for his son and wanted to save him from his siblings’ envy and wrongdoing (Bayḍāwī, Tafsīr). Yūsuf, upon him peace, is also told: “Allah Most High will choose you and teach you the interpretation of dreams (taʾwīl al-aḥādīth) and complete His blessing upon you and upon the family of Yaʿqūb as He completed it upon your forefathers, Ibrāhīm and Isḥāq; truly Your Lord is All-Knowing, All-Wise” (Q 12:6; cf. the interpretation of taʾwīl al-aḥādīth in the Tafsīrs of Ṭabarī and Qurṭubī).

While he was unjustly imprisoned, two of Yūsuf’s fellow-prisoners asked him to interpret their dreams (Q 12:35-42): one had dreamt that he was pressing wine and the other had seen birds eating from bread he bore on his head (Q 12:36). Yūsuf, upon him peace, replied: “O my two fellow prisoners, as for one of you, he will serve wine to his master; but the other will be crucified, and birds will eat from his head. The matter about which you ask has already been decreed” (Q 12:41). Al-Qurṭubī explains that “The interpretation of a Prophet is a judgment (ḥukm): if he has said it will be such-and-such, then Allah Most High will make it come to pass, as confirmation of his Prophethood” (Tafsīr).

The next dream is that of the king of Egypt (Q 12:43) who saw seven fat cows were eating seven lean cows and further saw seven green heads of grain and others dry. He asked his notables to interpret his dream (Q 12:44), but they said, “Confused dreams! We are not experts in the interpretation of dreams.” Then the prisoner who had been saved among the two said, remembering after a while, “I shall inform you of its interpretation, so send me forth.” He went to Yūsuf, upon him peace: “Yūsuf, O truthful one, give us your opinion concerning seven fat cows eating seven lean ones, and seven green heads of grain, and others dry, that haply I may return to the people, that they may know” (Q 12:45-46). The Prophet Yūsuf interpreted the dream of the king as portending seven years of good harvest followed by seven years of poor crops, and explained to him how to prepare for the lean years (Q 12:47-49). He was then released from prison and appointed keeper of the storehouses of the land (Q 12:47-55).

The story of Yūsuf, upon him peace, was completed with the fulfillment (22, 40, or 80 years later, per various exegetes) of the dream mentioned at the beginning of the sura: He raised his parents upon the throne, and they bowed to him in prostration. And he said: ‘O, my father, this is the interpretation of my dream aforetime. My Lord has made it come true’ (Q 12:100). The exegetes are unanimous that the prostration of his family to Yūsuf was an expression of greeting (taḥiyya) and gratitude, not an act of worship (Tafsīrs of Rāzī; Qurṭubī, Tafsīr, sub Q 12:100).

Types of Dreams

The Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, divided dreams into three types: (i) dreams containing terrifying things, which are from Satan and are aimed at causing distress to the son of Ādam; (ii) those originating in matters that a person is concerned with when he is awake, so he sees them in his dreams; and (iii) those which are one of the 46 parts of Prophecy (Qurṭubī, Tafsīr, sub Q 12:5). The first type arises from one’s lower self, and they are either entirely from Satan or emerge from a collusion of the lower self with Satan. Such dreams are either harmful or insignificant. Their harm can be kept at bay by seeking refuge in Allah from them and not telling them to others. The Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, also said, “Dreams are tied to the leg of a bird; they come to pass if they are narrated” (Tirmidhī, Abwāb al-ruʾyā, mā jāʾ fī taʿbīr al-ruʾyā; Aḥmad, Musnad al-Madaniyyīn, 26:120 §16205).

Good dreams, on the other hand, originate in the higher spiritual realm and bring good news and disclosures of future events. ʿAbd Allāh b. ʿAbbās said, “The Messenger of Allah drew aside the curtain—and his head was wrapped because of the illness in which he died—and he said three times, ‘O Allah, have I not conveyed [Your message]? Nothing is left of the glad tidings of Prophethood, except a good dream which a pious slave [of Allah] sees or which someone else is made to see on his account [li-ajlihi: someone having a dream about someone else; Mubārakfūrī, Tuḥfat, 6:456]” (Muslim, Ṣalāt, al-nahy ʿan qirāʾat al-Qurʾān fīl-rukūʿ wal-sujūd; Bukhārī, Taʿbīr, al-mubashshirāt). On another occasion, the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, said, “He who sees me in his sleep is like someone who saw me [in life], for Satan cannot impersonate me. A believer’s dream is one of twenty-six parts of Prophethood” (Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, al-Tamhīd, bāb al-alif, ḥadīth 8, 1:282). Al-Qurṭubī cites several other Prophetic reports in which different fractions are mentioned (dreams are one of 26, 44, 49, 50, or 70 parts of Prophethood); although he concludes that the most generally accepted fraction is 1/46 (Bukhārī, Taʿbīr, ruʾyā al-ṣāliḥīn; Muslim, Ruʾyā; Ibn Kathīr, Samʿānī, Qurṭubī, Tafsīrs, Wāḥidī, Wajīz, sub Q 10:64; Baghawī, Tafsīr, sub Q 12:5; Thaʿlabī, Kashf, sub Q 10:62-70). He explains that other ratios given in authentic hadiths are not mutually contradictory, because they fall within a spectrum which is linked to the spiritual state of the dreamer (Tafsīr).

The dream of the king of Egypt (Q 12:43) is characterized by his counselors as confused and uninterpretable (aḍghāthu aḥlāmin; cf. Q 12:45). The same expression also appears in Q 21:5, where disbelievers use it to describe Divine Revelation. Aḍghāth (sing. ḍighth) “are mixed-up dreams, as their true essence cannot be known with certainty; hence the expression denotes tangled and confused dreams” (Rāghib, Mufradāt, sub ḍ-gh-th). Al-Qurṭubī says, “the dream ascribed (al-ruʾyā al-muḍāfa) to Allah is free from confusion and delusion (awhām) and its interpretation agrees with that which is on the Preserved Tablet (al-lawḥ al-maḥfūẓ, q.v.), because it belongs to the category of a report (khabar); [but] mixed-up dreams are called ḥulm (phantasm); they are ascribed to Satan and are described as “mixed-up” because they contain mutually contradictory things (ashyāʾ mutaḍādda)” (Tafsīr, sub Q 12:5).

A hadith clarifies the difference between a dream (ruʾyā) and a phantasm (ḥulm, pl. aḥlām): “A good dream (al-ruʾyā al-ṣāliḥa) is from Allah and a phantasm is from Satan. So anyone who sees [in a dream] something he dislikes should cough it out thrice to his left side and seek refuge with Allah from Satan, and it will not harm him; and Satan cannot impersonate me” (Bukhārī, Ṭibb, al-nafth fīl-ruqya; Muslim, Taʿbīr, al-ḥulm min al-Shayṭān). Al-Nawawī explains: “A dream one likes is ascribed to Allah as praise of and gratitude to Him, while a phantasm is an unpleasant dream and is ascribed to Satan. Both types, however, are the creation of Allah Most High, for Satan has no capacity to create anything; he is simply present with the unpleasant dream” (Nawawī, Sharḥ Muslim).

In his commentary on the opening hadith of the chapter on dream interpretation in al-Bukhārī’s Ṣaḥīḥ, Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī (773-852/1371-1449) writes that some exegetes hold that Allah Most High commissions an angel to convey a dream. The angel is acquainted with the condition of all the Children of Ādam as inscribed in the Preserved Tablet (al-lawḥ al-maḥfūẓ). When a person is asleep, the angel presents these things to them to impart wisdom (ʿalā ṭarīq al-ḥikma) and to give him glad tidings or a warning, or rebuke him. However, Satan can also gain control over a person because of the intense animosity between Satan and humanity. He plots against them from every angle and desires to corrupt his affairs in every way. He deceives them through their dreams, either by confusing him or making him forget. Dreams are therefore of two broad types: (i) true dreams: those of the Prophets and the righteous who follow them, which can also benefit others by providing an outstanding example when they are fulfilled; and (ii) confused dreams, which give no benefit by way of admonition or foretelling of the future. Such confused dreams can be further subdivided into dreams caused by Satan, when he plays tricks in order to make the dreamer depressed; absurd dreams; and dreams which stem from one’s waking habits or from what dominates one’s temperament during the day, regarding what his psyche (nafs) suggests to him, most frequently from concerns for the future, often due to present conditions, and less often due to past conditions (Fatḥ al-Bārī 12:353).

The righteous receive good news as well as instructions and inspirations in their dreams. One of the three exegetical opinions about the instruction to the mother of Mūsā, upon him peace, to cast her son in the river (Q 28:7: So We revealed to the mother of Mūsā, “Nurse him, but if you fear for him, then cast him into the river. Fear not nor grieve; surely We shall bring him back to you and make him one of the Messengers”) is that it came in the form of a dream (Tafsīrs of Māwardī, Samʿānī; Ibn ʿAṭiyya, Muḥarrar).

Citing al-Rāzī’s treatise al-Lawāmiʿ, Ibrāhīm b. ʿUmar al-Biqāʿī (d. 885/1480) provides a glimpse of an Islamic dream-psychology:

[A dream] is inactivity (rukūd) of the external senses (al-ḥawāss al-ẓāhira) with regard to discernment and perception, and [it is the] motion of inner consciousness (al-mashāʿir al-bāṭina) toward mental faculties (al-madārik). The human soul has external sense organs and inner consciousness: when the outer senses are inactive, the inner senses become active and discern things unseen (al-umūr al-ghāʾiba). Sometimes one can understand [the dream] in the form it is seen and it does not need interpretation; sometimes one sees it in a form that only suggests the intended content, in which case the dream needs interpretation. An example of the former kind is the dream of the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, foretelling his entry into the Sacred Mosque (Q 48:27); an example of the latter kind is the dream of Yūsuf, upon him peace. (Naẓm, sub Q 12:5)

These early exegetical reflections provided material for subsequent theories of dreams. Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (450-505/1058-1111), for instance, further articulated a connection between dreams and the Guarded Tablet. He likens the human heart to a mirror, which when purified is able to reflect the Guarded Tablet: “The winds of [divine] favor (riyāḥ al-ilṭāf) blow, the veils are lifted from the eyes of the heart, and some of what is written on the Guarded Tablet appears; this happens, at times, in dreams (manāmāt) disclosing future events” (Iḥyāʾ, Kitāb ʿAjāʾib al-qalb, 5:67).

Dreams as Glad Tidings

Two Companions, ʿUbāda b. al-Ṣāmit (d. 34/654) and Abū al-Dardāʾ (d. 32/652), Allah be well-pleased with them, are reported to have asked the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, about the “glad tidings” (bushrā) in Q 10:63-64 (The Friends (awliyāʾ) of Allah, truly no fear shall come upon them, nor shall they grieve; those who believe and are God-fearing, for them are glad tidings (bushrā) in the life of this world and in the Hereafter. There is no altering the Words of God. That is the mighty triumph). The Prophet replied, “Good dreams seen by or shown to a Muslim” (Mālik, Muwaṭṭaʾ, 2:958; Aḥmad, Musnad, 37:363 §22688; Zurqānī, Sharḥ al-Muwaṭṭaʾ, 4:564; al-Qasṭallānī, Irshād al-sārī, 10:128 §6990). This explanation is cited in several commentaries (e.g. Tafsīrs of Ṭabarī; Qurṭubī; Rāzī; Māturīdī, Taʾwīlāt; Ibn al-ʿArabī, Aḥkām; Suyūṭī, Durr).

Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī comments that the interpretation of bushrā as dreams is supported through transmitted knowledge as well as rationally, because a person who is fully devoted to Allah and whose heart and soul are immersed in His remembrance would have nothing left in his soul while asleep but the gnosis (maʿrifa) of Allah Most High, and it is well-known that only truth and sincerity can lead to the knowledge of Allah and the light of Allah’s Exaltedness (nūr jalāli-Llāhi). On the other hand, someone whose thoughts are dispersed and focused only on the affairs of this dark and turbid worldly life would have dreams like his waking thoughts (Tafsīr).

Etiquettes and Rulings

Ibn Ḥajar says, “Good dreams entail three things: gratitude to Allah Most High, to accept good news, and not to relate it except to a loved one. Phantasms entail four things: to seek refuge in Allah Most High from its evil; to seek refuge from the evil of Satan; to spit thrice to the left upon awakening; and never to relate it to anyone. Additionally, it is recommended to turn to the side upon which one has dreamt a bad dream, offer prayer upon awakening, and recite Āyat al-Kursī (Q 2:255)” (Fatḥ al-Bārī, qawluh bāb bil-tanwīn al-ruʾyā min Allāh, 12:369-372).

Several hadiths warn of severe consequences of lying about dreams: “Whoever claims to have a dream which he did not have will be ordered [in the Hereafter] to tie two barley grains together, which he will never be able to do...” (Bukhārī, Taʿbīr, man kadhaba fī ḥulmih). This severity is because dreams are part of Prophethood, and therefore such lying is tantamount to lying against Allah Most High, which is far more grievous than lying against His creatures (al-Munāwī, Fayḍ al- Qadīr, 6:99 §8577; Ibn Ḥajar, Fatḥ al-Bārī, 12:428).

The Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, said, “When the time draws near, the dream of a believer will hardly tell a lie. And the truest dream will be that of one who himself is the most truthful in speech, for the dream of a Muslim is the forty-fifth part of Prophecy...” (Muslim, Ruʾyā; Bukhārī, Taʿbīr, al-qayd fīl-manām). Ibn Ḥajar cites three opinions about what is meant by “the time draws near”: (i) a time close to the End of Time; (ii) a time when there will be a paucity of honest persons; and (iii) the time when ʿĪsā, upon him peace, returns. He prefers the first opinion, for true dreams will be a source of solace at that time.

When dreams are repeated they confirm their truthfulness, especially if several different persons have the same dream. This is established by the dream about the Night of Qadr dreamt by several Companions: when it was related to the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, he said, “I see that all your dreams agree that [the Night of Qadr] is in the last seven nights; so whoever wants to search

for it, let him search in the last seven” (Bukhārī, Faḍl Laylat al-Qadr, iltimās Laylat al-Qadr fī-l- sabʿ al-awākhir; Muslim, Ṣiyām, istiḥbāb ṣawm sittat ayyām min Shawwāl itbāʿan li-Ramaḍān).

Oneirology (Dream Interpretation)

The validity of the science of dream interpretation is based on the Qurʾān, as taught by Allah Most High to Yūsuf, upon him peace: And thus shall your Lord choose you, teach you the interpretation of dreams, and complete His favor upon you and upon the family of Yaʿqūb, as He completed it upon your fathers before, Ibrāhīm and Isḥāq. Truly your Lord is All-Knowing, All-Wise (Q 12:6). “If true, dreams are narrations from the King (aḥādīṭh al-malik, namely Allah Most High), and if false, they are narratives from the soul (aḥādīth al-nafs) or from Satan” (Bayḍāwī, Tafsīr, sub Q 12:6).

Dream interpretation must not be taken lightly. When Imām Mālik (93-179/712-795) was asked, “Can anyone interpret dreams?” he replied, “I seek refuge in Allah; are they toying with Prophethood?” (al-Nawawī, Sharḥ Ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, 15:30; Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr, al-Tamhīd, 1:288; cf. Ibn Ḥajar, Fatḥ al-Bārī, 12:363). The Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, would ask his Companions after the morning prayer, “Have any of you had a dream last night?” (Mālik, Muwaṭṭaʾ, Ruʾyā; Ḥākim, Mustadrak, 4:432 §8176). Abū ʿUmar Yūsuf b. ʿAbd Allāh Ibn ʿAbd al-Barr (d. 463/1071) comments that this Prophetic practice underscored the noble status of the science of dream interpretation and had pedagogic import for the Companions (Tamhīd, bāb al-alif fī asmāʾ shuyūkh Mālik, Isḥāq b. ʿAbd Allāh b. Abī Ṭalḥa, hadith 13; p. 1:313). Al-Nawawī deduces several principles of dream interpretation from this hadith, including that early morning is especially suitable because the intellect is fully composed and not yet diverted by the activities of everyday life, the dreamer is close to the time of the dream, and the interpretation can then serve as motivation to right action in the remainder of the day (Sharḥ Muslim, Ruʾyā). One such instance of the Prophet’s dream interpretation concerns Ibn ‘Umar’s dream of a piece of silken cloth in his hand, carrying him to whichever direction of Paradise he waved it. Ibn ‘Umar’s sister Ḥafṣa told the Prophet this dream, and he replied, “Truly your brother is a righteous man,” or “Truly ‘Abd Allāh is a righteous man.”’” (Bukhārī, Ṣaḥīḥ).

Abū Muḥammad al-Ḥusayn b. Masʿūd al-Baghawī (d. 516/112) writes that dreams can be interpreted (i) with reference to evidence taken from the Qurʾān; (ii) in the light of the Sunna; (iii) with reference to present-day analogies (al-amthāl al-sāʾira); (iv) by identifying specific names and metaphorical meanings (maʿānī); (v) by inferring the opposite (for example, a fearful dream is changed to safety, per Q 24:55: He will surely substitute for them, after their fear, security”); or (vi) by substituting (qalb) another term (Sharḥ al-Sunna, kitāb al-ruʾyā, aqsām taʾwīl al-ruʾyā). Among the Companions, Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq, Allah be well-pleased with him (q.v.), was singled out as an expert dream interpreter. In the succeeding generation, the most eminent interpreter was Ibn Sīrīn (32-110/653-729), the client (mawlā) of Anas b. Mālik (d. 93/712) (Dhahabī, Siyar, vol. 4, no. 246). Muslim and al-Tirmidhī both include in their collections Hadiths about seeing the Prophet, upon him blessings and peace, in dreams.

Selected Literature

1. Misattributed to Ibn Sīrīn, Muḥammad al-Baṣrī al-Anṣārī (33-110/653-729), Tafsīr al-aḥlām, also known as Muntakhab al-kalām fī tafsīr al-aḥlām (Cairo: Sharikat Muṣṭafā al-Bābī

al-Ḥalabī wa awlādih, 1359/1940). Translated by Muhammad M. Al-Akili as Ibn Seerïn’s Dictionary of Dreams according to Islamic Inner Traditions (Philadelphia: Pearl Publishing House, [ca. 1991]). This is a spurious abridgement of Taʿbīr al-ruʿyā, a now-lost book also attributed to Ibn Sīrīn and mentioned in Ibn al-Nadīm, al-Fihrist, Maqāla 8, Fann 3, pp. 384-85.

2. al-Kirmānī, Kitāb Taʿbīr al-ruʾyā: Ibn al-Nadīm, ibid., pp. 384-85.

3. al-Faryābī, Kitāb Taʿbīr al-ruʾyā: Ibn al-Nadīm, ibid., pp. 384-85.

4. al-Ḥasan b. Maḥbūb al-Sarād, Kitāb Taʿbīr al-ruʾyā: Ibn al-Nadīm, ibid., Maqāla 6, Fann 5, p. 273.

5. Ibn Qutayba, Abū Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh b. Muslim al-Dīnawarī (213-276/828-889), Kitāb Taʿbīr al-ruʾyā (Damascus: Dār al-Bashāʾir, 1491/2001), which contains this declaration: “In the various sciences and fields of wisdom which people deal with, there is nothing more obscure, subtle, exalted, noble, difficult and problematic than dreams, for they are a form of revelation and of Prophethood” (p. 8-9).

6. al-Kharkūshī, ʿAbd al-Malik b. Muḥammad b. Ibrāhīm al-Naysābūrī (d. 407/1016), al-Bishāra wal-nadhāra fī tafsīr al-aḥlām, manuscript only.

7. Ibn ʿAbd al-Samīʿ ʿAbd al-Raḥmān b. Muḥammad al-Qurashī (d. 621/1224), Kitāb Taʿbīr al-ruʾyā; mentioned by al-Dhahabī, Siyar, vol. 22, no. 126.

8. Shihāb al-Dīn Abū al-ʿAbbās Aḥmad Ibn Surūr b. Niʿma al-Nābulusī (d. 697/1298), al-Badr al-munīr fī ʿilm al-taʿbīr, also known as Qawāʿid tafsīr al-aḥlām (Beirut: Muʾassasat al-Risāla, 1421/2000).

9. ʿAbd al-Ghanī b. Ismāʿīl b. ʿAbd al-Ghanī al-Nābulusī (d. 1143/1731), Taʿṭīr al-anām fī taʿbīr al-manām, (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, n.d.), originally printed in the margins of Muntakhab al-kalām fī tafsīr al-aḥlām (in 2 vols. Cairo: al-Maṭbaʿa al-Kubrā al-Amīriyya).

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See also

ANGEL(S); BADR; CLIENTS; COMPANIONS OF THE PROPHET; GLAD TIDINGS AND WARNINGS; HAJJ; HEREAFTER; HYPOCRISY AND HYPOCRITES; IBRĀHĪM, UPON HIM PEACE; ISḤĀQ, UPON HIM PEACE; ISMĀʿĪL, UPON HIM PEACE; JIBRĪL, UPON HIM PEACE; MADINA; MAKKA AL-MUKARRAMA; AL-MASJID AL-ḤARĀM; NIGHT JOURNEY AND ASCENSION; PARADISE; PRESERVED TABLET; SATAN; YAʿQŪB, UPON HIM PEACE; YŪSUF, UPON HIM PEACE; ZAQQŪM.

На Пути к Корану

Передают, что ‘Убада ибн ас-Самит рассказывал, что посланник, мир ему и благословение Аллаха, сказал: «Сновидения верующего равняются одной сорок шестой части пророчества» (ал-Бухари и Муслим). На эту тему существует много похожих хадисов, в которых сообщается, что благое сновидение или сновидение верующего равняется одной двадцать шестой, одной сороковой, одной сорок пятой, одной сорок девятой, одной пятидесятой или одной семидесятой части пророчества.

Согласно кади ‘Ийаду ибн Мусе (ум. 544/1149), имам ат-Табари считал, что эти различия определяются различиями между состояниями людей, которые видят сновидения. Сновидение праведного верующего приравнивается к одной сорок шестой части пророчества, а нечестивого — к одной семидесятой. Согласно другому толкованию, неясное сновидение является одной семидесятой частью, а отчётливое — одной сорок шестой.

По словам Хамда ал-Хаттаби (ум. 388/998), некоторые богословы считали, что благое сновидение является одной сорок шестой частью пророчества, потому что пророк, мир ему и благословение Аллаха, пророчествовал в Мекке тринадцать лет, в Медине — десять лет, и видел откровения во сне в течение шести месяцев, которые предшествовали пророчеству (шесть месяцев составляют одну сорок шестую часть от 23 лет). Некоторые богословы считали это объяснение слабым, поскольку нет достоверных сообщений о продолжительности правдивых сновидений до начала пророчества.

Маликитский законовед Абу ‘Абдаллах ал-Мазири (ум. 536/1141) сказал: «Возможно, под этим подразумевается, что сновидение является вестью о сокровенном, и это — всего лишь один из плодов пророчества. Оно не определяет пророчество, ибо если Всевышний Аллах отправил пророка для того, чтобы тот издавал законы и разъяснял предписания, то этот пророк может и ничего не сообщать о сокровенном, и это нисколько не умалит его пророчества и не повлияет на его суть. Благое сновидение — всего лишь часть пророчества и весть о сокровенном. Но если оно является кому-либо, то обязательно оказывается правдивым» (Шарх Муслим 8/27). Согласно достоверным хадисам, пророк Мухаммад, мир ему и благословение Аллаха, видел правдивые сновидения и после начала пророческой миссии.