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Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān / Signs

Article Table of Contents

Expressions of signs

Functions of signs

Reactions to signs

Signs as linguistic communication

Structure of sign-passages

Later development

Bibliography

Indications or portents, foreshadowing or confirming something. The concept of sign, one of the most commonly exhibited concepts in the Qurʾān, is expressed mainly by the wordāya (pl. āyāt) in almost four hundred instances and by the word bayyina (pl. bayyināt) in approximately sixty cases. Several other words also convey the principal idea or some nuances of āya, for example: lesson (ʿibra, q 12:111), pattern (uswa, q 60:4), fact, story, discourse (ḥadīth,¶5-3-1¶ q 45:6), example (mathal, q 43:57; see parable), proof (q.v.; burhān, q 4:174), proof (sulṭān, q 30:35), signs (shaʿāʾir, q 22:36), signs (āthār, q 30:50; see generations; air and wind; geography), sign (dalīl, q 25:45).

The word āya (sign) has no root in Arabic and is very probably a loan-word from Syriac or Aramaic (āthā; see foreign vocabulary) where it indicates not only the ideas of sign and miracle (see miracles; marvels), as in biblical and rabbinic Hebrew (ōth), but also the notions of argument and proof. (Arab philologists who have tried to find a stem and a form of this word have arrived at different solutions; either the word is derived from a-w-y or from a-y-y and its form is either faʿala or faʿla or fāʿila; cf. Lisān al-ʿArab; see grammar and the qurʾān.) The word occurs in pre-Islamic poetry (see poetry and poets) in the meaning of a sign or token and in this meaning it also appears in the Qurʾān (q 26:128, “as a sign for passers by”). In the Qurʾān, āya also often denotes argument and proof. These shades of meaning can be explained in the light of the polemical character of parts of the Qurʾān which are influenced by Muḥammad's struggles with the unbelievers, the Jews and the Christians (see polemic and polemical language; belief and unbelief; jews and judaism; christians and christianity).

Expressions of signs

The scripture attests to the numerous and diverse signs which exist in the earth (q.v.) and in humankind: “In the earth are signs for those having sure faith (q.v.), and in yourselves; what, do you not see?” (q 51:20-1; see seeing and hearing; vision and blindness). These signs are so obvious that one cannot ignore them. Being produced by God (q 6:109; (7:203; (29:50) and only with his permission ¶ (q 13:38; (40:78), such signs can be detected in all spheres of life. Both animate and inanimate objects provide signs (Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī [d. 606/1210] makes a distinction between signs in man, dalāʾil al-anfus, and signs in the world, dalāʾil al-āfāq; Rāzī, Tafsīr, xxv, 111), as in “O my people, this is the she-camel of God, to be a sign for you” (q 11:64; see camel; ṣāliḥ) and “And it is God who sends down out of heaven water (q.v.), and therewith revives the earth after it is dead. Surely in that is a sign for a people who listen” (q 16:65; cf. 30:24; see heaven and sky; hearing and deafness). God's providential design is demonstrated through his acts in nature and in human beings (see nature as signs; grace; blessing). A typical sign-passage is q 13:2-3:

God is he who raised up the heavens without pillars you can see, then he sat himself upon the throne (see throne of god); he subjected the sun (q.v.) and the moon (q.v.), each one running to a term stated. He directs the affair; he distinguishes the signs; haply you will have faith in the encounter with your lord (q.v.). It is he who stretched out the earth and set therein firm mountains and rivers, and of every fruit he placed there two kinds, covering the day with the night (see day and night). Surely in that are signs for a people who reflect (see reflection and deliberation; agriculture and vegetation).

Sustenance (q.v.) and dress are given to humankind by God as a sign of his providence:

Children of Adam! We have sent down on you a garment to cover your shameful parts (see clothing; modesty; nudity), and adornment (rīsh); and the garment of godfearing — that is better; that is one of ¶ God's signs; haply they will remember (q 7:26; see remembrance).

Have they not seen that God spreads out the provision to whom he wills or is sparing [with it]? Surely in that are signs for a people who believe (q 30:37).

To these signs are added the variety of human languages (see language) and colors (q.v.) and their differentiated activities by night and day (q 30:22-3). God also intervenes in historical events by punishing wicked peoples; this intervention serves as a sign for those who fear the punishment of the last day (q 11:102-3; see last judgment; history and the qurʾān; chastisement and punishment; punishment stories; reward and punishment). In like manner God prevents the enemies [of Muslims] from injuring them (q 48:20) and he causes some people, especially prophets, to overcome others to prevent their corrupting of the earth (q 2:251-2; see prophets and prophethood; corruption). According to the context of q 3:58, what has happened to the prophets are signs. Mary (q.v.), Jesus' (q.v.) mother, became a sign because of her chastity (q.v.) which caused God to breathe into her something of his spirit (q.v.; q 21:91).

Functions of signs

Having examined some of the objects which serve as signs, this discussion can turn to the functions of āyāt. Most of the signs in scripture have the purpose of calling on humankind to thank God (e.g. q 16:14; 30:46; 36:73; see gratitude and ingratitude) and to worship (q.v.) him (cf. q 10:3). Considering the frequent occurrence of words denoting signs in the Qurʾān (see, for example, the beginning of q 45 in which the wordāyāt occurs in almost every verse), it is possible to state that Muḥammad regarded signs as the best ¶ means to call people to believe in God and his messenger (q.v.), a means preferable to frightening them with the horrors of the day of judgment. Āyāt are miracles done by God for the sake of people. Signs in “ask the Children of Israel (q.v.) how many a clear sign we gave,” (q 2:211) are interpreted to mean the splitting of the Red Sea, and the bringing down of the manna and the quail (see animal life). The aim of these miracles was to compel the Children of Israel to believe in God, but they refused to believe. Those who deny God's miracles are doomed to suffer God's severe punishment (q 3:11; (4:56). Miracles also aim at causing people to believe in prophets (q 58:5); Moses (q.v.) tried to persuade Pharaoh (q.v.) that he had been sent by God (q 7:103-6). Muhammad's prophecy is not proved directly by āyāt; rather it is proved through legitimating his message by āyāt. When the message is demonstrated to be genuine, the messenger is a true prophet. Through the use of analogy the Qurʾān attempts to convince people to believe in certain tenets of Islam, such as the resurrection (q.v.). According to q 2:259, a man passed near a ruined town and asked how shall God give its dead people life. To show this man his power, God put him to death and revived him after one hundred years. The aim of this personal miracle is to show God's ability to resurrect the dead (Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, i, 558). The miracle here serves as proof based on analogy: just as God put this man to death and then restored him to life, so can he put all people to death and then revive them on the day of judgment (see death and the dead). Resurrection is also demonstrated through God's creation (q.v.) of the world. If God's ability to create extends to such an enormous act, the more so his ability to revive the dead: “Have they not seen that God who created the heavens and earth, not being wearied by creating them (see ¶ sabbath), is able to give life to the dead?” (q 46:33; cf. 75:38-40). Another proof is learned from the rain sent by God. Just as the rain revives the earth, causing plants to sprout, so can God restore the dead to life (cf. q 35:9).

From the contents and context of q 3:13 it is obvious that an āya is also a lesson (ʿibra): There has already been a sign for you in the two companies that met [at the battle of Badr (q.v.)], one company fighting for the sake of God and another unbelieving; [the unbelievers] saw [the Muslims] twice the like of them, as the eye sees, but God supports with his help whom he will. Surely, in that is a lesson for the wise (see wisdom; ignorance; teaching).

The lesson God conveys here is that he can make a few people overcome many. Again God's power and his help for man are proven (see victory; power and impotence; trust and patience). Whereas in q 2:259, mentioned above, the analogy is to be learned by stages, here the conclusion from the story is directly inferred. That God punishes evil people is a widespread idea throughout the Qurʾān (see good and evil). Sometimes the Qurʾān points out that whoever fears the punishment of the last judgment should take a lesson from God's previous punishments:

Such is the punishment [literally “seizing,” akhdh] of your lord, when he punishes [the evildoers of] the cities; surely his punishment is painful, terrible. Surely in that is a sign for him who fears the chastisement of the world to come… (q 11:102-3; see also q 15:77; 25:37; 26:103, 121, 139, 158, 174, 190; 27:52; 29:35; 34:19).

The lesson to be learned is not only from God's punishment but also from his reward ¶ to the righteous: God saved Noah (q.v.) as he did the people and animals that were in Noah's ark (q.v.; e.g. q 29:15; 54:15). The history of a family such as Joseph (q.v.) and his brothers serves, too, as a lesson (q 12:7; see also brother and brotherhood; benjamin). A lesson can also be learned from a parable (q 2:266). Sometimes a sign serves as a trial (q.v.) for a people, whether they will believe or not (q 44:33). Another aim of the signs is to show that God acts for the benefit of humans in many spheres of life such as sustenance or transportation (q 16:5-18; see vehicles). Finally, a sign may function as a metaphor (q.v.), its explanation being given by exegetes (see exegesis of the qurʾān: classical and medieval); good and bad land are similes for the believer and the unbeliever respectively (Jalālayn, ad q 7:58; cf. 10:24).

Reactions to signs

Reactions to signs, proofs and miracles differ — some people believe in them (q 6:54, 99) while others do not, or they display a negative attitude toward them. Some people are obstinately reluctant to draw conclusions from God's acts aiming at the preservation of the world: “We set up the heaven as a roof well-protected; yet still from our signs they are turning away” (q 21:32; cf. 6:157; 15:81; 36:46). Refusing to recognize God's signs is regarded by the Qurʾān as the gravest wrongdoing: “And who does greater evil than he who, being reminded of the signs of his lord, turns away from them…” (q 18:57; 32:22). These rejecters consider signs to be witchcraft: “Yet if they see a sign they turn away, and they say: ‘A continuous sorcery’” (q 54:2; cf. 27:13; 46:7; see magic). In addition, Muḥammad suffered from the mockery (q.v.) of his opponents (see opposition to muḥammad): “Say: ‘What, then were you mocking God, and his signs, and his messenger’?” (q 9:65; cf. 18:56, ¶ 106; 30:10; 45:9, 35). The most common example of such negative reactions is that of evildoers who disbelieve in God's signs: “We have sent down to you clear signs, and only the evildoers disbelieve in them” (q 2:99). Other evildoers (see evil deeds) are identified with those who killed prophets (q 3:21; see murder; bloodshed). In the qurʾānic view, the refusal to recognize God's signs is connected to rejection of his messengers who point to those signs (see sin, major and minor; ethics and the qurʾān). Whoever questions God's existence and power is an evildoer, and vice versa, those who fear (q.v.) God and give alms believe in God's signs (q 7:156; cf. Birkeland, Interpretation, 13-29; see almsgiving; piety). The verb kadhdhaba (he accused someone of lying, or discovered someone to be lying, or regarded something as a lie, or denied something; see lie) is used to indicate another kind of reaction to the signs considered by the Qurʾān as the gravest act (q 6:21). “(Their way is) like the way of Pharaoh's folk and those before them; they denied the signs…” (q 8:54; see also q 5:10, 86, where in both verses kadhdhaba comes along with kafara, he disbelieved; cf. q 6:21, 39, 150; 10:95; 7:176-7, 182; 20:56). In q 6:33 it is emphasized that Muḥammad's opponents, the unbelievers, did not accuse him of lying but they denied (jaḥada) God's signs. The verb jaḥada and its equivalents, ankara and ẓalama, appear several times in the qurʾānic text as expressions of the reaction to God's signs (q 7:9; 11:59; 29:49; 31:32; 40:63, 81; 41:15; 46:26). In two verses the verb istakbara (he became haughty) occurs with the verb kadhdhaba, as in “Those who regard our signs as lies and display haughtiness (see arrogance; pride) toward them shall be the inhabitants of the fire (q.v.; see also hell and hellfire) forever” (q 7:36 and q 7:40), and without kadhdhaba in other verses (q 7:133; 10:75; 45:31). In ¶ one place the unbelievers' arrogance and mockery are depicted as a deception (q 10:75). Another kind of negative reaction to the signs is disputation (jidāl) which is associated with unbelief: “None but the unbelievers dispute concerning the signs of God…” (q 40:4; see debate and disputation). But the unbelievers have no proof to support their dispute which derives from their arrogance (cf. q 40:35, 56). In several verses the opponents' disputation is expressed through mockery; they accuse Muḥammad of telling ancient stories (q 6:25; 8:31; 68:15; 83:13). Twice, the unbelievers are regarded as heedless of the signs (q 7:136; 10:7). They also defame the signs (q 41:40) and oppose them (q 74:16). In sum, the unbelievers express their reaction to God's signs in several ways — denial, mockery, contestation, opposition and heedlessness. As a text characterized, inter alia, by polemics, the Qurʾān frequently refers to its opponents, and naturally emphasizes their negative attitude toward the signs.

Signs as linguistic communication

The word āya, apart from connoting non-linguistic communication between God and man (Cf. Izutsu, God, 133), also contains the additional meanings of a basic unit or a passage of revelation, namely, linguistic communication (see revelation and inspiration; verses). In the Qurʾān itself there is no indication as to the length of these units or passages. q 2:106 reads: “And for whatever unit of revelation (or passage, āya) we abrogate or cast into oblivion, we bring a better or the like of it…” (cf. q 16:101; 24:1; see abrogation). Also when the Qurʾān states that “Those are āyāt of the wise scripture” (q 10:1; 12:1; 13:1, in several beginnings of sūras [q.v.] which constitute a fixed formula), it seems to point to a basic unit of revelation or to passages, although the meaning of signs ¶ cannot be ruled out altogether. Āyāt are mentioned in the context of interpretation (taʾwīl), a fact that alludes to linguistic communication (q 3:7). Similarly, it is more probable that āyāt mean units of revelation when appearing with the verb talā (he recited): “The People of the Book (q.v.) are not all alike. [Among them is] a righteous community who recite God's āyāt in the hours of the night…” (q 3:113, and q 19:73; 33:34; see vigils; recitation of the qurʾān). According to some interpreters of the Qurʾān, the plural word āyāt also means the Qurʾān itself (e.g. Jalālayn, ad q 27:81; 29:23, 49; 31:7; 34:43). It is, however, possible to conclude from the context of some verses that āyāt are identified with the scripture, as in “Our lord, send among them a messenger, one of them, who shall recite to them your signs, and teach them the book (q.v.) and the wisdom…” (q 2:129; cf. 2:151; 10:15). According to q 3:2-4, not only is the Qurʾān designated as āyāt but also the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament (see torah; gospels).

A further extension of the meaning of āya, one with legal connotations, is certainly discernible from q 2:231:

When you divorce women, and they have reached their term, then retain them honorably or set them free honorably; do not retain them by force, to transgress [this law]; whoever does that has wronged himself. Take not God's laws (āyāt) in mockery… (see marriage and divorce; boundaries and precepts; law and the qurʾān).

The wordāyāt also occurs in the context of God's giving ordinances (q 2:187, (221; 24:58, 61). And there is another stylistic phenomenon which proves the notion that āyāt may also be used as a term for laws. The formula “in such a manner God ¶ makes clear to you his āyāt (signs)” is found both after a sentence which speaks about God's graces, namely, his help for and saving of the believers (q 3:103), and after a sentence which talks about the expiation of oaths (q.v.; q 5:89; see also breaking trusts and contracts; contracts and alliances). Just as in the former example āyāt seems to mean signs, so in the latter āyāt seems to mean laws. Our suggestion is that the above-mentioned formula refers to the sentences which precede it. To sum up, āyāt has the following basic meanings: signs, miracles, proofs, basic units or passages of revelations, the Qurʾān and other holy books, and laws.

Structure of sign-passages

Most sign-passages (i.e. groups of sign-verses) are characterized by introductory as well as concluding formulas (see form and structure of the qurʾān). The introductory phrase presents God's acts and the concluding sentence emphasizes the fact that these acts are signs for people who reflect, or understand. q 13:2-3 reads:

God is he who raised up the heavens without pillars you can see, then he sat himself upon the throne. He subjected the sun and the moon, each running to a term stated. He directs the world (literally: the affair) [and] he makes the signs clear so that you will be certain of the encounter with your lord. It is he who stretched out the earth and set therein firm mountains and rivers, and of every fruit he placed there two kinds, and covered the day with the night. Surely in that are signs for a people who reflect.

In some sign-passages the first words are: “And of his signs…” (q 30:20). There are, however, sign-passages in which the word “signs” is absent (q 6:141; 13:12-15; 16:3-8, 80; 30:48-51; 32:4-9). On the whole, the ¶ sign-passages have no uniform internal order, except that there might be a special division and a hierarchy of the signs in some places, as indicated by exegetes (see below Later development).

Most of the verbs connected with signs indicate the mode of their arrival to humankind: “to bring,” atā bi, ātā, jāʾa bi (cf. q 2:106, 211; 43:47), “to bring down or to reveal,” nazzala, anzala (e.g. q 6:37; 10:20), “to come,” atā (e.g. q 6:158), and “to send,” baʿatha bi, arsala bi (e.g. q 10:75; 11:96). Some verbs (bayyana, ṣarrafa, faṣṣala) indicate that the signs are explained or made clear (q 5:75; 6:46; 7:174; 9:11), and some others (e.g. dhakkara, qaṣṣa) indicate that the signs are mentioned, told and recited (q 6:130; 8:31; 10:71; see narratives). In the light of the polemical character of many parts of the Qurʾān, it seems that these verbs are intended to deliver the message that God's signs not only exist but are brought down to people, they are transmitted by recounting or recitation and, beyond that, they are made clear in order to convince humans of God's power and providence, so that they will worship him. Without the Prophet's explanation, signs remain a “means of non-linguistic communication” (Izutsu, God, 133-9), which humanity is obliged to decipher. In addition, there is the phenomenon that some signs are depicted as clear signs (āyāt bayyināt, q 2:99; 3:97; 17:101). We do not know the difference between āya and bayyina (as a noun), the latter literally meaning “clear sign.” In q 20:133 and q 7:73, the identification of āya with bayyina is transparent, and in other places bayyina applies to the same sign which is expressed elsewhere by āya (q 7:105). Āyāt bayyināt, however, seem never to be applied to natural wonders, rather only to historical or supernatural signs (Rahman, Major themes, 72).¶

Later development

The natural phenomena that appear in the Qurʾān serve Muslim scholars as corroboration for the argument from design. The teleological argument is used to prove the existence of God, his unity, wisdom, and rule of the world through the wonderful design observed in the world (see sovereignty; kings and rulers; god and his attributes). Although this argument is found in Greek philosophy (Socrates, Aristotle, the Stoics) and in Christian thought (Augustine [d. 430], Boethius [d. 524] and, in the Muslim era, John of Damascus [d. ca. 143/750], Theodore Abū Qurra [d. ca. 210/825] and ʿAmmār al-Baṣrī [d. ca. 210/825], who very probably influenced Muslim theologians; on the early interactions between Christian and Muslim theologians, see e.g. Griffith, Faith and reason), one cannot ignore the numerous examples of the argument in the Qurʾān (cf. Gwynne, Logic), which certainly induced Muslim theologians to employ it. It seems that Muʿtazilī theologians first used the argument from design (Hishām al-Fuwaṭī [d. ca. 229/844], al-Naẓẓām [d. bef. 232/847], al-Jāḥiẓ [d. 255/869]; see muʿtazilīs). This argument then passed to other theologians, whether they belonged to mainstream Muslims, such as al- Muḥāsibī (d. 243/857), to Ashʿarī theologians like al-Ashʿarī (d. 324/935), al-Bāqillānī (d. 403/1013) and al-Ghazālī (d. 505/1111), or to sectarians, such as the Zaydī Imām al-Qāsim b. Ibrāhīm (d. 246/860; see heresy). Even the Aristotelian philosopher Ibn Rushd (d. 595/1198) states that he prefers arguments for God's existence that appear in the Qurʾān to speculative arguments (see theology and the qurʾān). His form of the teleological argumentation (see cosmology), the argument from God's providence, which shows that the design of the world aims to benefit ¶ people, is one that is much cited in the Qurʾān.

The exegetes of the Qurʾān naturally placed much importance on God's signs and the conclusions derived from them concerning God's power and his rule of the world (Ṭabarī, Tafsīr, ad q 30:24; Ibn Kathīr, Tafsīr, ad q 30:21). Generally, however, al-Ṭabarī (d. 310/923), Ibn Kathīr (d. 774/1373) and other traditionalist exegetes did not investigate sign-passages as a whole, nor did they analyze the inter-connections between signs. Such examinations were carried out by rationalist exegetes such as Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 606/1210), who divides sign-passages according to their functions, the connections between them, and their hierarchical structure (Rāzī, Tafsīr, ad q 30:22-7). q 30:22-5 reads:

And of his signs is the creation of the heavens and earth and the variety of your languages and colors… and of his signs is your slumbering by night, and your seeking by day after his bounty… and of his signs he shows you lightning (see weather), for fear and hope, and that he sends down out of heaven water and he revives the earth with it after it is dead… and of his signs is that the heaven and earth stand [firm] by his command…

Al-Rāzī divides these signs into necessary accidents (aʿrāḍ lāzima), namely, accidents which are part of the essence of a thing, and those which are transitory (aʿrāḍ mufāriqa), some departing quickly, such as redness of the face as a result of shame, and others slowly, such as youth (cf. Jurjānī, Taʿrīfāt, 153-4; see youth and old age). First the Qurʾān points out two examples of necessary accidents (the various languages and colors of people), and then two examples of aʿrāḍ mufāriqa (sleep at night and the search for means of subsistence ¶ during the day; see pairs and pairing). God makes the aʿrāḍ mufāriqa of the last two verses which deal with heaven and earth come before their aʿrāḍ lāzima, for heaven and earth are stable and changes are more marvelous in them than in humankind. Thus, al-Rāzī organizes signs according to their characteristics. q 30:8 reads: “Have they not reflected on themselves? God did not create the heavens and the earth and what is between them save with the truth….” Al-Rāzī notices that in this verse signs in people (dalāʾil al-anfus) precede signs in the heavens and earth (dalāʾil al- āfāq), whereas in q 41:53, “We shall show them our signs in the horizons (al-āfāq) and in themselves…,” signs in the heavens and earth take precedence. The solution to this contradiction lies in the distinction between the agents of the verbs mentioned in these verses: when the agent is human, the signs stated are easy to perceive, for they are in humans themselves and people cannot ignore them, while the signs which God mentions about the world are more difficult to perceive, for they are remote from humanity. What God mentions last is understood by people first because they progress in knowing God's signs in stages (Rāzī, Tafsīr, xxv, 99, ad q 30:8). Such sophisticated interpretation occurs neither in classical nor in modern exegesis (see exegesis of the qurʾān: early modern and contemporary; philosophy and the qurʾān). Scientific exegesis, which searches for elements and terminology of science in the Qurʾān, does appear in classical texts, but is not as widespread as it has become in the modern era (Jansen, Interpretation, 36-8; see science and the qurʾān).

Modern exegetes tend to deal not only with separate words in a verse or with a complete verse but also with whole sign-passages, paraphrasing their ideas and ¶ drawing conclusions from them. q 10:5-6 reads:

It is he who made the sun a radiance, and the moon a light (q.v.), and determined it by stations, that you might know the number of the years and the reckoning. God created that only with the truth, explaining the signs to a people who know. In the alteration of night and day, and what God has created in the heavens and the earth, surely, there are signs for godfearing people.

Muḥammad Rashīd Riḍā (d. 1935), whose interpretation of the Qurʾān follows the teachings of his master, the great Muslim reformist Muḥammad ʿAbduh (d. 1905), states that these two verses direct the Muslim to God's cosmological signs which prove his power to revive the dead and to reward man (cf. Darwaza, Tafsīr, vi, 287). According to Rashīd Riḍā, these signs also show God's wisdom and the regular design in creation, and, characteristically of modern exegesis, he points out that they stimulate man to study astronomy, a science which the ancestors favored because of the guidance of the Qurʾān (see planets and stars). Furthermore, study of the cosmological signs proves that Islam is a religion based on knowledge (see knowledge and learning) and science (dīn ʿilmī), not on blindly following authority (q.v.; taqlīd). The scientific discoveries of the secrets of light in this generation prove God's sagacity (Rashīd Riḍā, Manār, xi, 301-5). In ʿAbduh's work, the jinn (q.v.) are identified with microbes (Jansen, Interpretation, 43). Extensive scientific exegesis (tafsīr ʿilmī) is found in Muḥammad Farīd Wajdī's (d. 1940) al-Muṣḥaf al-mufassar, “The Qurʾān Interpreted” (Jansen, Interpretation, 46-7). A typical modern discussion of sign-passages is found in Sayyid Quṭb's (d. 1966) interpretation of the beginning of q 30 (vv. ¶ 1-32). In his view, sign-passages do not stand apart; there is a close connection between what happens to humans and the natural phenomena, and this is expressed through the notion that God is the source of all things (Quṭb, Ẓilāl, vi, 436). The function of the signs is to prompt humans to believe in God (ibid., 448-9). Whoever makes such signs, Quṭb emphatically states, is the same one who sends messengers to humankind, restores people to life, and so on (ibid., 463), as in the second part of the sūra (vv. 33-60).

The notion that all future scientific discoveries are mentioned in the Qurʾān, whether directly or indirectly, is a common modern notion. Muṣṭafā Kamāl Maḥmūd (b. 1921), an Egyptian physician, writer and a qurʾānic exegete, is very fond of scientific exegesis. He finds allusions to recent scientific discoveries in the qurʾānic description of creation (Maḥmūd, Muḥāwala, ed. 1970, 51, 60-4; cf. Rippin, Muslims, 95-7). He partially accepts Darwin's theory of evolution, claiming that God is responsible for the evolution of the species in stages (Maḥmūd, Muḥāwala, ed. 1970, 59-60; ed. 1999, 67-8). Among the various natural phenomena which support the scientific knowledge found in the Qurʾān, he points to the state of the embryo (q 39:6; Maḥmūd, Muḥāwala, ed. 1970, 65-8; see biology as the creation and stages of life). Some modern exegetes regard the scientific contents of the Qurʾān as proof of the veracity of Muḥammad's prophecy and consequently the truthfulness of the qurʾānic ideas. According to these scholars, the scientific elements attest to a miracle that is even greater than the miracle of the literary supremacy of the Qurʾān (see inimitability; language and style of the qurʾān). The scientific interpretation, however, has not gone unchallenged. Muslim scholars themselves have charged the adherents of scientific exegesis with ¶5-11-1¶ failing to pay proper attention to the context of the verses discussed, to philological considerations and to the fact that the Qurʾān was addressed to Arabs (q.v.), speaking in their language and informing only of the sciences known in the Prophet's era (see occasions of revelation; sīra and the qurʾān; pre-islamic arabia and the qurʾān). Moreover, they insist that the Qurʾān presents an ethical and religious message (see virtues and vices, commanding and forbidding; eschatology) and that a limited text cannot contain the ever-changing views of scientists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Hussein, Commentaire; Jansen, Interpretation, 47-54).

Bibliography

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Cite this page

Abrahamov, Binyamin, “Signs”, in: Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān, General Editor: Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Georgetown University, Washington DC. Consulted online on 07 January 2017 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQCOM_00182>