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== Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition // Uzbekistan ==
Uzbekistan, the name for a region of Central Asia, literally “land of the Uzbeks/Özbegs”, adopted after the imposition of Bolshevik rule in Central Asia as the designation of one of the component republics of the U.S.S.R., now a republic within the Commonwealth of Independent States.

1. In the pre-Soviet period

For the history of the region and its towns in these times, see buk̲h̲ārā ; farg̲h̲āna ; k̲h̲wārazm ; k̲h̲īwa ; ¶ k̲h̲oḳand ; mā warāʾ al-nahr ; mangi̊ts ; özbeg ; samarḳand ; s̲h̲ībānids ; tas̲h̲kent ; turkistān . 1.

2. From 1920 to the present day

The territory which corresponds today to that of the Republic of Uzbekistan was split in 1920 between, on the one hand, the General Government of Turkistan under Bolshevik control, and on the other, the emirates of K̲h̲īwa and of Buk̲h̲ārā, Russian protectorates which became people’s republics the same year. The People’s Republic of Buk̲h̲ārā, headed by eminent reformists ( d̲j̲adīds [q.v.]) such as Fayḍ Allāh K̲h̲wād̲j̲ayev and ʿAbd al-Raʾūf Fiṭrat [q.v.], was still strongly imbued with Islam. In 1923, the Communist Party of Buk̲h̲ārā was purged of its d̲j̲adīd and “bourgeois” elements by Moscow and, in October 1924, the People’s Republic gave birth to the Soviet Socialist Republic of Uzbekistan (SSRUz) which adopted the city of Tas̲h̲kent as its capital in 1930. In 1929, what is now Tad̲j̲īkistān, which then belonged to the SSRUz, became an entirely separate Soviet Socialist Republic and in 1936, Karakalpakistan was attached to the SSRUz, within which it constituted an autonomous republic.

The new republic experienced difficult beginnings, as since 1918, the oriental regions of the former amīrate and of Farg̲h̲āna had been the fief of the amīr ’s supporters and of anti-revolutionaries, known by the name of basmačis , whom the Red Army succeeded in extirpating only in 1928 (in certain regions not until 1935-6). During the Stalin era, the anti-religious policy of Lenin was applied with greater severity, resulting in the demolition of Uzbek Islam with the suppression of religious tribunals (1924), of madrasas (1928), of waḳf s, and the closure of many mosques (1930). This induced the religious to operate in secret. Furthermore, the great schism between the old Central Asia, that of the d̲j̲adīds, and the new, that of the Soviets, came about in the years 1937-9, at the time of the great Moscow purges, with the trials and executions of the leading ideologues of Muslim socialism, and those of representatives of Central Asian culture, all being d̲j̲adīds (ʿĀlimd̲j̲ān Ibrāhīmov, ʿAbd al-Raʾūf Fiṭrat, ʿAbd Allāh Ḳādirī, Tulugan K̲h̲wād̲j̲ amiyarov (Tawalla), ʿAbd al-Sulaymān (Čolpan), etc.) accused of being “bourgeois counter-revolutionary nationalists”. Fayḍ Allāh K̲h̲wād̲j̲ayev, present in the highest echelons of power in Buk̲h̲ārā between 1920 and 1924, then in Tas̲h̲kent between 1925 and 1937, became a potent symbol for the victims of persecution. After 1939, the ruling clique of the SSRUz was thus radically remodeled.

In 1941, anxious for Central Asian support in his confrontation with the Nazi menace, Stalin made concessions with regard to Islam while maintaining his anti-religious policy: he thus created four religious boards of which one, based in Tas̲h̲kent, exercised jurisdiction over the whole of Central Asia and Kazak̲h̲stan, appointing all the muftīs . The muftī of the SSRUz, Bābāk̲h̲ān b. ʿAbd al-Mad̲j̲īd K̲h̲ān, was the first in a dynasty of muftīs (his son and his grandson followed him) which was to reign over Central Asia until 1989. It was also in the Stalin period, in 1952, that the Mīr ʿArab madrasa of Buk̲h̲ārā was re-opened.

Stalin died in 1953, but his policy of militant atheism was pursued by his successors Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the USSR until 1964, and Leonid Brezhnev, leader until 1983, along with a vigorous programme of Russification (Party cadres, language and history). In 1956, during the 20th congress of the Communist Party of the USSR, the murders committed by Stalin were denounced and numerous individuals were rehabilitated, ¶ including Fayḍ Allāh K̲h̲wād̲j̲ayev and ʿAbd Allāh Ḳādirī, the latter being considered the first great novelist of the modern Uzbek language. However, there was no question of rehabilitating the d̲j̲adīd movement, still described as “reactionary”.

The second key-date in the history of the SSRUz falls in 1960 with the arrival of S̲h̲araf Ras̲h̲īdov (d. 1983) who was to serve as first secretary of the Uzbek CP for 24 years, from 1959 to 1983 (he was also a member of the Praesidium). The weight of local and tribal rivalries, which Moscow was adept at exploiting, became increasingly decisive when the Farg̲h̲ānīs, in power since 1937, were replaced by the Samarḳandīs with Ras̲h̲īdov. The latter were to remain until 1983, at which date the Farg̲h̲ānīs reappeared. Ras̲h̲īdov inaugurated a relatively tolerant period, and thus between 1960 and 1970 writers were allowed more freedom to publish. In another context, in 1965 at the end of a violent anti-religious campaign launched by Khrushchev in 1954, the expression “parallel” Islam was coined to describe a clandestine Islam (cults of saints, illegal madrasas, Ṣūfī ṭarīḳas ), of which some groups of devotees were to survive the Soviet period into the present day.

The third crucial phase in the history of the SSRUz followed the accession to power in the USSR, in 1983, of Yuri Andropov. This marked the beginning of a period of crisis between Moscow and the SSRUz which was to last until the republic’s independence in 1991. The nationalism of the Uzbeks was censured, as was local corruption, and the system introduced by Ras̲h̲īdov was virulently denounced, the latter being publicly accused of having encouraged nepotism, local solidarities and clientelism (he was rehabilitated, by I. Karīmov, in 1992). The “cotton affair” was the focus of multiple criticism, with accusations cast not only at the Uzbek mafia but also at its links with political circles; the SSRUz was seen as a mafia republic. But criticism went further in that Central Asian traditions were judged responsible for these deviations. It should, however, be noted that the objective of corruption was not invariably personal enrichment; it was often seen as a way of helping the community.

The purges begun under Andropov were pursued until the early years of Gorbachev; between 1983 and 1986, more than three-quarters of the members of the central committee of the SSRUz were replaced. However, the frontal attack by Moscow on the Uzbek élites increased popular support for the latter. It fell to Mikhail Gorbachev, on becoming First Secretary of the CP of the USSR in 1985, to pursue the reforms initiated by Andropov (who had died in 1984, being replaced for a few months by Konstantin Chernyenko) and continue the campaign against corruption. The period was symbolised by the concept of Glasnost , i.e. plain speaking and an end to secrecy. For Gorbachev, reforms in the economic sphere were inseparable from reforms conducted in the ideological, hence religious, sphere. Contemporaneously with the denunciation and replacement of the Uzbek élites in 1986, an anti-Islamic campaign was pursued from 1985 to 1988, although this failed to prevent a religious revival which had begun in the time of Andropov. Proving unpopular, Moscow’s aggressive campaign was halted in 1988, and Gorbachev, embroiled in political difficulties, saw rapprochement with religion as a possible solution.

But the collapse of the Soviet system was imminent and a new reconstruction of the USSR was inaugurated, namely, Perestroika ; this was to open the way to unexpected changes and to a revision of Leninism. This period saw the exposure of all the grievances of ¶ the SSRUz towards Moscow—ethnic, linguistic, cultural, ecological and religious—hitherto concealed. This was also the beginning of the rewriting of the history of Central Asia (the basmači movement was presented as a movement of national struggle, the history of the amīrate of K̲h̲oḳand was studied once more, etc.). The review Literature and Art of Uzbekistan ( Ozbekiston Adabiyati va Sanati ), which in 1981 took the place of Civilisation of Uzbekistan ( Ozbekiston Madaniyati ) as the organ of the Union of Uzbek writers, was an important element in the cultural revival. Also appearing at this time were Perestroika clubs, including the Birlik (Unity) movement, founded in 1988 and becoming a political party. Uzbek became the official language in 1989. The opposition in Moscow seized on ecological issues such as the scandal of the Aral Sea, exposed in 1987, and the monoculture of cotton, which had had a drastic effect on the nation’s water resources and on the health of a large section of the population (draining of the Aral Sea, contamination of water-sources, etc.). The production of cotton, which had increased between 1940 and 1980, was not to be reduced until 1990, under pressure from Islom Karīmov, the future “strong man” of the country.

Although religious freedom had been granted to Christians in Moscow since 1988 at the time of the festivities marking the millennium of the Russian Orthodox Church, the First Secretary of the Uzbek CP, Rāfiḳ Nis̲h̲ānov, continued to vilify Islam. Everything changed, however, in 1989 and 1990, following numerous demonstrations which stimulated an acceleration of religious revival (re-opening of a number of mosques, return of the clergy to public life, expulsion of the last of the dynasty of Uzbek muftīs , S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Bābāk̲h̲ān, and his replacement by Muḥammad Ṣādiḳ Muḥammad Yūsuf, who took an active part in all areas). The new economic conditions and nationalist fervour led to a number of inter-ethnic conflicts, e.g. the massacre of Mesk̲h̲et Turks in Farg̲h̲āna in 1989 and Kirg̲h̲iz-Uzbek confrontation at Os̲h̲ in 1990, and the departure of numerous Russians back to Russia.

Appointed First Secretary of the Uzbek CP by Moscow in 1989, Islom Karīmov (Islām Karīm) was to guide the SSRUz towards independence on 1 September 1991, less than a year after his declaration of sovereignty and a few months after the failed putsch of August 1991 and the disintegration of the USSR. The 23rd Congress of the Uzbek CP saw its transformation, in September of the same year, into a “Democratic Party of the People”. Of the two other existing opposition parties, Birlik and Erk (Liberty), the latter having broken away from the former in 1990, only Erk participated in the presidential elections of December 1991 which were won by Karīmov with 86% of the votes.

The year 1990 may be considered the third key-date in the history of the SSRUz since it was then that revenge was taken for the purges of 1986; following the Congress of the Uzbek PC, the Central Committee was reconstituted, with three-quarters of its members being replaced. On becoming President of the Republic of Uzbekistan (RU), Karīmov maintained collaboration with Moscow, and in December 1991 the nation joined the Commonwealth of Independent States, to which it is currently (1999) still linked. Between 1992 and 1993, the opposition was muzzled: the leaders of the Birlik and Erk parties (ʿAbd al-Raḥīm Polaov and Muḥammad Ṣāliḥ, respectively) were forced into exile. In 1994, new parties emerged in Uzbekistan: the Patriotic Progressive Party (Vatan Taraqqiëti), the Justice Party (Adolat) and the Party ¶ of National Renewal (Milli Tiklanis̲h̲). In May 1995, following a referendum, Karīmov was confirmed in his post as President of the Republic until the year 2000.

From 1991 onward, de-Russification and return to Central Asian cultural traditions regarded as patrimony ( miros [ mīrāt̲h̲ ]) became the norm. The nation was engaged in a veritable quest for identity. Names of individuals and toponyms were changed, as were the names of streets, squares, etc., and hitherto prohibited books were published: these included the Ḳurʾān, ḥadīt̲h̲ collections, the poems of Aḥmad Yasawī [q.v.] and the works of d̲j̲adīd authors. The Uzbek language was purged of Russian words and neologisms were created, some of them borrowed from Čag̲h̲atay or from Persian (there was even a course for the teaching of Čag̲h̲atay, inaugurated by religious elements at Namangan, in Farg̲h̲āna, in 1990-1). In 1993, a law was passed calling for the replacement of the Cyrillic by the Latin alphabet in the year 2000, but the chosen alphabet was modified in 1995 and its adoption deferred until 2005 (a different Latin alphabet had already been used in Uzbekistan between 1927 and 1940).

Uzbekistan has ceremoniously rehabilitated some of the great figures of Central Asian history (Tīmūr, Ulug̲h̲ Beg), of Central Asian Islam (Abū ʿĪsā al-Tirmid̲h̲i, Ismāʿīl al-Buk̲h̲ārī), of d̲j̲adīdism (ʿAbd Allāh Ḳādirī) and of Ṣūfism (Aḥmad Yasawī, Bahāʾ al-Dīn Naḳs̲h̲band). Numerous cultural traditions have been revived, such as the festival of Nawrūz and the wearing of the traditional head-dress ( dopi ). The RU respects the majority of Islamic traditions: religious festivals or toy ( mawlūd , Ramaḍān, etc.), fasting, Pilgrimage to Mecca, even the cult of saints under certain conditions. But it is waging a ruthless war against all forms of fundamentalism, and keeping a close watch on its frontiers with Afg̲h̲ānistān and Tad̲j̲īkistān. In 1990, it banned the Uzbek branch of the Party of Islamic Rebirth (Islom Uyg̲h̲onis̲h̲ Partiyasi) which had just been constituted; as a result of this, the Islamists were forced underground. Subsequently, in 1992, an Islamic insurrection at Namangan (Farg̲h̲āna), led by the Adolat (Justice) movement, which sought to establish an Islamic state in the region, was violentiy suppressed. Between 1993 and 1996, numerous religious figures and Islamists were arrested, in Tas̲h̲kent and in Farg̲h̲āna, many of them former members of the Islamic Rebirth Party. As for official Islam, the Perestroika muftī , Muḥammad Ṣādiḳ Muḥammad Yūsuf, reckoned too independent and disrespectful of authority, was replaced in 1993 by ʿAbd Allāh Muk̲h̲tār (Muk̲h̲taržan) (the latter being assisted by the former muftī S̲h̲ams al-Dīn Bābāk̲h̲ān). Furthermore, Karīmov has taken pains to control the activities of foreign missionaries in his land, expelling Saudi Wahhābīs and Turkish Nurd̲j̲us, and prohibiting the publication in 1994 of the Turkish religious journal Zaman-Uzbekistan , issued by the Nurd̲j̲us.

As for traditional Islam, it no longer needs to be clandestine as hitherto. Pilgrimage to the tombs of saints is a widespread practice, the most important of these being that of Bahāʾ al-Dīn Naḳs̲h̲band at Buk̲h̲ārā, but is controlled by the spiritual board. Healers ( bak̲h̲s̲h̲ī ) and popular exorcists ( emči , darger ) are no longer troublesome. Branches of the Naḳs̲h̲bandiyya [q.v.] ṭarīḳa which survived Soviet persecution today represent a traditional Islam, opposed to fundamentalism, which plays an ever increasing role in the direction of the madrasas and the schools for ḳārīs , in particular in Farg̲h̲āna. Since 1991 these ṭarīḳas , centred on K̲h̲ōḳand and Andid̲j̲ān, have extended their ¶ network of activities and become gradually implanted in other provinces of Uzbekistan, in neighbouring republics, in particular in Kazak̲h̲stan and Tād̲j̲īkistān, and in Russia. In accordance with the law guaranteeing “freedom of conscience and religious association” (1991), the RU is a centre, in addition to the “Spiritual Board of the Muslims of Transoxiana” for three other religions, sc. the Russian Orthodox Church, the Baptists and the Seventh Day Adventists. In the monetary sphere, in 1994, the RU began issuing its own national currency, known as sum .

The RU, formerly the SSRUz, is the most densely populated region of Central Asia with a population of 23 million inhabitants in 1996; it had numbered 4.3 million in 1913 and 8.1 million in 1959. In 1992, this population consisted of 71% Uzbeks, 8% Russians, 5% Tad̲j̲iks, 4% Kazak̲h̲s and 2% Karakalpaks.

;Bibliography
Ozbek Soviet Entsiklopediyasi, Tas̲h̲kent

Akmal Saidov and O. Yunusova, Ozbekiston Respublikasing, Viždon Erkinligi va Diniy Tashkilotlar Toghrisidagi Konuni, Tas̲h̲kent

Istoriy̲a̲ Narodov Uzbekistana, Tas̲h̲kent 1947

A.I. Isanov, Sozdanie Burk̲h̲skoy Narodnoy Sovetskoy Respubliki (1930-1924), Tas̲h̲kent 1955

idem, Buk̲h̲arskay̲a̲ Narodnay̲a̲ Sovetskay̲a̲ Republika, Tas̲h̲kent 1969

O.A. Suk̲h̲areva, Islam v Uzbekistane, Izdatel’stvo Akademii Nauk Uzbekskoy SSR, Tas̲h̲kent 1960

E. Allworth, Uzbek literary politics, London, The Hague and Paris 1964

idem, The modern Uzbeks, from the fourteenth century to the present. A cultural history. Stanford 1990

Helène Carrère d’Encausse, Réforme et révolution chez les musulmans de l’Empire russe, 2Paris 1966

Istoriy̲a̲ Uzbekskoy SSR, 4 vols., Tas̲h̲kent 1968

A. Bennigsen and Chantai Lemercier-Quelquejay, Les Musulmans oubliés. L’Islam en URSS aujourd’hui, Paris 1981

eidem, Le Soufi et le Commissaire. Les confréries musulmanes en URSS, Paris 1986 (expanded French ed. of Bennigsen and S. Enders Wimbush, Mystics and commissars. Sufism in the Soviet Union, London 1985)

W. Fierman, Uzbek feelings of ethinicity. A study of attitudes expressed in recent Uzbek literature, in Cahiers du monde russe et soviétique, xxii/2-3 (1981)

idem, Glasnosts in practice. The Uzbek experience, in Central Asian Survey, viii/2 (1989)

idem, Language planning and national development. The Uzbek experience, Berlin-New York 1991

J. Soper, Shake-up in the Uzbek literary elite, in Central Asian Survey, i/4 (1983), 59-82

J. Critchlow, Nationalism in Uzbekistan. A Soviet Republic’s road to sovereignty, Boulder, Colo. 1991

Ingeborg Baldauf, Schriftreform und Schriftwechsel bei den muslimischen Russland- und Sowjettürken (1850-1937). Ein Symptom ideengeschichtlicher und kulturpolitischer Entwicklungen, Budapest 1993

G. Gleason, Uzbekistan from statehood to nationhood?, in I. Bremmer and R. Taras (eds.), Nation and politics in the Soviet successor states, Cambridge 1993

S.A. Dudoignon, Les Médias autonomes d’Asie centrale pendant la dislocation du système soviétique. Le Mustaqil Haftalik, janvier-novembre 1992, in Bulletin des anciens élèves et amis de l’Ecole des langues orientales (November 1993)

idem, Changements politiques et historiographie en Asie centrale (Tadjikistan et Uzbekistan, 1987-1993), in Cahiers d’étude sur la Méditerranée orientale et le monde turco-iranien, xvi (1993)

Tursunboy Fayzullaev, Özbekiston yangi yolda, Tas̲h̲kent 1993

Sigrid Kleinmichel, Aufbruch aus orientalischen Dichtungstraditionen. Studien zur usbekischen Dramatik und Prosa zwischen 1910 und 1934, Wiesbaden 1993

H. Hale, Islam, state-building and Uzbekistan foreign policy, in (eds.), A. Banuazizi and M. Weiner, The new geopolitics of Central Asia and its borderlands London 1994

I. Zabborov, Özbek k̲h̲alqi etnografiy̲a̲si, Tas̲h̲kent 1994

Ilhom G̲h̲aniev, Fitratshunoslik, doctoral ¶ diss., Buk̲h̲ārā 1995

Mehrdad Haghayeghi, Islam and politics in Central Asia, New York 1995

R. Pomfret, The economies of Central Asia, Princeton 1995

S. Dudoignon (ed.), Le réformisme musulman en Asie centrale. Du “premier renouveau” à la soviétisation 1788-1937, in Cahiers du monde russe, xxxvii/1-2 (January-June 1996)

Th. Zarcone, Le mausolée de Bahāʾ al-Dīn Naqshband à Bukhara (Uzbekistan), in Jnal. of Turkish Studies. In memoriam Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı, xix (1995)

idem, L’Islam d’Asie centrale et le monde musulman, restructuration et inteférences, in Le Cercle de Samarcande, Hérodote, Paris (2nd trimester 1997), no. 84

Muḥammad Ṣāliḥ, Turkistan s̲h̲uuru, Istanbul 1997

Zarcone, Le résurrection des confréries d’Istanbul à Kashghar, in Les Cahiers de l’Orient, Paris, 1 (1998).

(Th. Zarcone)

;Cite this page
Zarcone, Th., “Uzbekistan”, in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs. Consulted online on 07 March 2023 <http://dx.doi.org.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1319>

== Ссылки ==
* https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ozbekistan

Обсуждение:Узбекистан - История изменений

Maqivi: Новая страница: «== Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition // Uzbekistan == Uzbekistan, the name for a region of Central Asia, literally “land of the Uzbeks/Özbegs”, adopted...»